<p>The Falkland Islands are located in the South Atlantic Ocean between 51°S and 53°S on a projection of the Patagonian Shelf, part of the South American continental shelf. In ancient geological time this shelf was part of Gondwana, and around 400 million years ago split from what is now Africa and drifted westwards from it. Today the islands are subjected to the Roaring Forties, winds that shape both their geography and climate.</p><br>
<p>The Falklands comprise two main islands, West Falkland and East Falkland, and about 776 small islands.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The geological history of the Falkland Islands began during the Precambrian era more than 1000 million years ago, when Proterozoic granites and gneisses were laid down in Gondwana. These rocks became part of the Cape Meredith/ formation and outcrop at the Cape. During the Siluro-Devonian era, these rocks were overlain with quartzose and subarkosic sandstones with some siltstone and mudstone, rocks that are particularly erosion- and weather-resistant, giving these parts of the islands a rugged landscape and coastline.</p><br>
<p>Tectonic forces continued to form the region: a mountain chain formed, part of which now creates Wickham Heights on East Falkland Island and extends westwards through West Falkland into the Jason Islands. A basin developed and was filled with land-based, or terrigenous, sediments. These layers of sand and mud filled the basin as it sank and as they hardened they produced the rocks of the sedimentary Lafonia Group of the Falklands. These rocks are similar to those in southern Africa&#39;s Karoo basin.</p><br>
<p>About 290 million years ago, in the Carboniferous period, an ice age engulfed the area as glaciers advanced from the polar region eroding and transporting rocks. These rocks were deposited as extensive moraines and glacial till, or they sank in the sea while the glacier floated in a layer of ice. When the glacial sediments were turned into stone they formed the rocks that now make up the Fitzroy Tillite Formation in the Falklands. Identical rocks are found in southern Africa.</p><br>
<p>During the break-up of Gondwana and the formation of the Atlantic Ocean some 200 million years ago, minor crustal fragments that were to become the Falkland Islands detached themselves from the nascent African continent and drifted westwards, dividing and rotating as they did so before settling on the Patagonian Shelf. Most of the layers of West Falkland and its surrounding islands are slightly inclined from the horizontal. This inclination shows different types of rocks in different places. The quartzites of Port Stephens and Stanley are more resistant than the arenaceous sediments of the formation at Fox Bay. The Hornby Mountains, near Falkland Sound have experienced tectonic forces of uplift and folding which has inclined the quartzite beds of Stanley to the vertical.</p><br>
<p>Rocks from more recent geological periods such as the Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Tertiary periods usually contain lime-rich rocks. The absence of such rocks has led to an acidic substrate which manifests itself in the nature of the soil.</p><br>
<h2>Topographical description</h2><br>
<p>The Falkland Islands are an archipelago of 778 islands with an area of 12,173 km&sup2; located in the South Atlantic Ocean on a projection of the Patagonian Shelf. The two principal islands, East Falkland and West Falkland, account for 91% of the land area. These two islands, which have a combined distance of 220 km from east to west and 140 km from north to south, are separated by the Falkland Sound, a channel that averages 20 km in width and has a typical depth of 40 m. Cape Meredith on West Falkland is about 400 km north-west of the tip of Tierra del Fuego and Westpoint, also on West Falkland and adjacent to West Point Island, is about 500 km from the Patagonian coast. It is believed that at times during the Pleistocene epoch, relative sea level was some 46 m lower than the present time–sufficient for the sound to be bridged.</p><br>
<h3>East Falkland</h3><br>
<p>East Falkland, which has an area of 6,605 km&sup2, a little over half the total area of the islands consists of two land masses of approximately equal size – the southerly part known as Lafonia, but the northerly part has no specific name. These land masses are joined by an isthmus of width 2.2 km that separates two deep fjords, Choiseul Sound and Brenton Loch-Grantham Sound from each other. The island&#39;s 1,668.7 km coastline has many smaller bays, inlets and headlands. Over 70% of the population of the Falkland Islands live in the capital, Stanley, which is located in East Falkland.</p><br>
<p>The northern part of the island, apart from the coastal strip bordering the Choiseul Sound, is largely underlain by Palaeozoic rocks in the form of quartzite and slate, which tend to form rugged landscapes and coastlines and to cause the soil to be poor and acidic. The principal range of hills, the 600 m Wickham Heights runs from north-east to south-west. The highest point of the range (also the highest point in the Falklands), is Mount Usborne which has a height of 705 m. The area away from the mountain range consists chiefly of low undulating ground, a mixture of pasture and morass, with many shallow freshwater tarns, and small streams running in the valleys. Two inlets, Berkeley Sound and Port William, run far into the land at the north-eastern extremity of the island and provide anchorage for shipping.</p><br>
<p>In contrast, Lafonia is underlain by Mesozoic age sandstone, a younger rock than the Palaeozoic rock to the north, giving a flatter landscape than is seen elsewhere on the island. Sheets of liquid basalt intruded into the cracks that formed between the sedimentary layers. The resulting solidified sheets can now be seen in the form of dikes that cut the oldest sedimentary layers, those that lie principally in the southern part of East Falkland and in South Africa.</p><br>
<h3>West Falkland</h3><br>
<p>West Falkland has an area of 4,532 km&sup2, making it smaller than East Falkland. Mount Adam, the highest point in the island and part of the Hornby Hills, is 700 m above sea level. The Hornby Hills which are the principal range on the island run approximately north-south parallel with Falkland Sound.</p><br>
<p>Geologically this range is a continuation of the Wickham Heights on East Falkland.</p><br>
<p>In West Falkland there are several dykes that cut the rocks of the western islands, but these dykes, unlike the previous ones, are chemically more unstable and have been eroded. The only indications of their existence are the aligned linear depressions. In the margins of these depressions there is evidence of contact baking or hornfels formation adjacent to the once molten basalt dyke.</p><br>
<p>West Falkland is more hilly on the side closest to East Falkland.</p><br>
<p>The southernmost point of West Falkland is Cape Meredith, and the most south-westerly point is Calm Head. On the southerly side lie high cliffs with an abundance of seabirds.</p><br>
<h3>Smaller islands</h3><br>
<p>In addition to the two main islands, the Falkland Islands have over 700 further islands, many no more than a few hectares in area. The islands to the north west of West Falkland include Pebble Island (103 km), Keppel Island (36 km), Saunders Island (131 km), Carcass Island, West Point Island and the Jason group of islands (33 km) that lie some 40 km from West Falkland.</p><br>
<p>The principal islands to the south west of West Falkland include New Island (22 km), Weddell Island (265 km), Beaver Island (48 km) and Staats Island. The group of islands that are separated from Lafonia by the Eagle Passage include Speedwell Island (51 km), and George Island (24 km). Other islands off the Lafonia coast include Bleaker Island (21 km), Sealion Island, Lively Island (56 km), Barren Island. In addition, Beauchene Island, a rocky outcrop lies some 60 km from the Lafonia coast.</p><br>
<p>Many of the islands are nature reserves, either in whole or in part.</p><br>
<h3>Seabed</h3><br>
<p>The Patagonian Shelf, which in ancient geological time was part of Gondwana and which broke from what is now Africa, drifted westwards relative to Africa. It is now the widest continental shelf in the world covering 1,200,00 km.</p><br>
<p>It protrudes some 760 km into the South Atlantic Ocean from the Patagonian coastline and slopes gently to 200 m before falling away; the Falkland Islands being located two thirds of the way along this protrusion. The base of the plateau is about 100 m below sea level to the west of the islands (400 km from the Patagonian coast), sloping to 200 m to the east of the islands where it falls away into the South Atlantic Ocean. The Falklands Plateau, a slightly shallower stretch of water lies to the immediate east of the Falkland Islands.</p><br>
<p>To the immediate south of the islands, the Falklands Plateau is split into two by the Falklands Trough, a submarine valley that separates the plateau proper from the Scotia Arc – an underwater ridge that links Tierra Del Fuego with the Burdwood Bank (where the water is only 20 m deep) and, further into the Atlantic Ocean/Great Southern Ocean, with a number of islands including South Orkneys, South Sandwich Islands and South Georgia.</p><br>
<p>Licences to harvest the large variety of fish that live on the shelf provides a major source of income for the islands as does the licensing of oil exploration.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The Falkland Islands have a maritime climate in the transition region between the temperate and subarctic zones (Köppen classifications Cfb and Cfc respectively) which is characterised by both low seasonal and diurnal temperature ranges and no marked wet and dry season while in the sub-arctic zone the average monthly maximum temperature exceeds 10 &deg;C for no more than four months of the year and the average monthly minimum does not drop below -3 &deg;C. The Falkland Islands climate is very much influenced by both the cool ocean currents and the shielding effect of the Andes.</p><br>
<p>The cold Antarctic Coastal Current flows in an easterly direction around Cape Horn where part of it is diverted northwards as the Falklands Current. Subsurface temperatures in the vicinity of the Falklands are of the order of 6 °C. The Falklands Current meets the warm South Brazilian Current at about 40°S (see Brazil–Falkland Confluence), some 1,000 km north of the islands. The prevailing winds at the Falklands&#39; latitude are the westerlies that gather moisture across the Pacific Ocean, but the Andes form a 4,000 m barrier causing a rain shadow across the Patagonia and to a lesser extent, the Falkland Islands.</p><br>
<p>The January average maximum temperature is about 13 °C (55 °F), and the July maximum average temperature is about 4 °C (39 °F). The rainfall varies between 300 mm in parts of Lafonia to 1400 mm in the mountain ranges with an average annual rainfall of 573 mm. Humidity and winds, however, are constantly high. Snow is rare but can occur at almost any time of year. Gales are very frequent, particularly in winter.</p><br>
<p>In addition to parts of the Falklands, a maritime subarctic climatic zone is found in parts of coastal Iceland, Faroe Islands, north western coastal Norway, southern islands of Alaska and parts of the Alaskan Panhandle, the southern tip of South America and mountainous areas of Europe including the Scottish Highlands and south-western Norway.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>Biogeographically, the Falkland Islands are classified as part of the Antarctic ecozone and Antarctic Floristic Kingdom. Strong connections exist with the flora and fauna of Patagonia in South America. The only terrestrial mammal upon the arrival of Europeans was the warrah, the loup-renard of Louis Antoine de Bougainville, a kind of fox found on both major islands that became extinct in the mid-19th century. Slater suggests that the warrah was introduced into the Falkland Islands either by rafting or by dispersal of glacial ice during one of the glaciations of the late Pleistocene epoch (2.5 million and 15,000 years ago).</p><br>
<p>A total of 14 species of marine mammals have been identified in the surrounding waters: elephant seal, fur seal and sea lions all breed on the islands with the largest elephant seal breeding site has over 500 animals. There are two endemic species and 14 endemic subspecies of bird. Five penguin species including the Magellanic penguin breed on the islands as do over 60% of the global black-browed albatross population.</p><br>
<p>There are no native reptiles or amphibians on the islands. Over 200 species of insects have been recorded, along with 43 spider species and 12 worm species. Only 13 terrestrial invertebrates are recognised as endemic, although information on many species is lacking and it is suspected up to two thirds of species found are actually endemic. Due to the island environment, many insect species have developed reduced or absent wings. There are around 129 freshwater invertebrates, the majority being rotifer; however, the identification of some species remains in dispute. Six species of fish are found in freshwater areas, including zebra trout and falklands minnows.</p><br>
<p>The islands claim a territorial sea of 12 nmi and an exclusive fishing zone of 200 nmi, which has been a source of disagreement with Argentina. Different species of krill are found in Falkland waters, with Lobster Krill inhabiting the warmer waters in the north. The waters around the Falkland Islands are part of the Patagonian Shelf Large Marine Environment. Fin fish that are harvested in the Falkland waters include southern blue whiting (Micromesistius australis), rock cod (Patagonotothen), Blue grenadier or Hoki (Macruronus magellanicus) and the principal species of squid that are harvested are the Illex squid (Illex argentinus) and the Patagonian squid (Loligo gahi). The squid spawn in the mouth of the Río de la Plata close to the confluence of the cold Falklands current and the warm Brazilian current, migrate southwards along the Patagonian Shelf into the Falklands waters and then return to their spawning grounds along that lies off the continental shelf.</p><br>
<p>There are no native tree species on the archipelago, although two species of bushes, fachine and native box are found. Other vegetation consists of grasses and ferns. Around 363 species of vascular plants, 21 species of ferns and clubmosses and 278 species of flowering plants have been recorded on the islands. Of the vascular plants, 171 are believed to be native and 13 to be endemic. Some bogs and fens exist and support some freshwater plant species, but these are not common on the islands. Tussac grass, which averages 2 m in height but can reach up to 4 m, is found within 300 m (1,000 ft) of the coast where it forms bands around larger islands. The dense canopies formed create an insulated micro-climate suitable for many birds and invertebrates. The pale maiden (Olsynium filifolium) is the islands&#39; proposed national flower.</p><br>
<h2>Human geography</h2><br>
<p>Prior to 1812, various colonial powers had small settlements on the Falkland Islands. In that year the islands were abandoned but within twenty years the British had re-established a settlement. In the 1851 census, the settlement&#39;s population was recorded as 287, increasing to 2,043 in 1901 and 2,563 in 2012.</p><br>
<h3>Human settlements and activities</h3><br>
<p>The main settlements in the islands are at Stanley which as of 2012 had a population of 2,121, and RAF Mount Pleasant, which in 2006 had a population of about 1,700. A further 351 people lived in ""Camp" (outside Stanley) − just over half in East Falkland, a third in West Falkland and the remainder on outlying islands. The principal settlements on East Falkland (excluding Stanley and Mount Pleasant) are at Darwin and Goose Green, on West Falkland at Port Howard and Fox Bay and on the islands, the Pebble Island Settlement. At the time of the Falklands War, the settlements in Camp were connected by tracks that were often impassable in wet weather, but by 2007 the Falkland Islands had a road network of 786 km, with further roads planned for construction to link all occupied mainland settlements by 2013.</p><br>
<p>In the early nineteenth century, the main economic activity on the islands was seal hunting. Later the islands became a re-provisioning depot for clippers sailing from Australia to the United Kingdom via Cape Horn.</p><br>
<p>Over 80% of the islands&#39; land is given over to sheep farming, with half a million animals being supported on 11,239 km of farmland, of which 40 km was perennial pasture. Roughly 40% of the national flock are on West Falkland and 60% on East Falkland. In addition to dairy and pig farming, a small amount of reindeer farming is carried out, for example on the Beaver group of islands. This herd was the only herd in the world that was unaffected by the Chernobyl disaster.</p><br>
<p>In the last decade of the twentieth century and the early twenty-first century tourism and fishing have made a major economic impact on the islands and as of 2012 an oil exploration industry was developing.</p><br>
<h3>Impact of human activity</h3><br>
<p>There is little long-term data on habitat changes, so the extent of human impact is unclear. Vegetation such as tussac grass, fachine, and native box (Hebe elliptica) have been heavily affected by introduced grazing animals. Many breeding birds similarly only live on offshore islands, where introduced animals such as cats and rats are not found. Virtually the entire area of the islands is used as pasture for sheep. There is also an introduced reindeer population, which was brought to the islands in 2001 for commercial purposes. Rats and grey foxes have been introduced and are having a detrimental impact on birds that nest on the shores, as are feral cats. Twenty-two introduced plant species are thought to provide a significant threat to local flora.</p><br>
<p>Fuerteventura  is one of the Canary Islands, in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Africa, politically part of Spain. At 1,660 km&sup2, it is the second largest of the Canary Islands, after Tenerife. It was declared a biosphere reserve by UNESCO in May 2009. Its capital is Puerto del Rosario.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Precolonial history</h3><br>
<p>The first settlers of Fuerteventura are believed to have come from North Africa. The word Mahorero (Majorero) or Maho is still used today to describe the people of Fuerteventura and is derived from the ancient word mahos, a type of goatskin shoe worn by these original inhabitants. They lived in caves and semi-subterranean dwellings, some of which have been excavated, revealing remnants of early tools and pottery. In antiquity, the island was known o.a. as Planaria, in reference to the flatness of most of its terrain.</p><br>
<p>In the 11th century BC, Phoenician settlers landed in Fuerteventura and Lanzarote.</p><br>
<p>Several Spanish and Portuguese expeditions to the islands were organized around 1340, followed by Moors and European slave traders. At the end of the Iberian conquest, the island was divided into two Guanches kingdoms, one adhering to King Guize and the other to King Ayoze. The territories of these kingdoms were called Maxorata (in the North) and Jandía (in the South) respectively. They were separated by a wall, which traversed the La Pared isthmus. Some remains have been preserved. The ancient name for the island, Erbania, is derived from this wall&#39;s name.</p><br>
<h3>The conquest</h3><br>
<p>The island&#39;s conquest began in earnest in 1402, commanded by Jean de Béthencourt and Gadifer de la Salle. They arrived with only 63 sailors out of the original 283, as many had deserted along the way. After arriving and settling in Lanzarote, the invaders made some first excursions to the neighboring islands. In 1404, Bethencourt and Gadifer founded Betancuria, on the West coast, the first settlement on the island. After numerous difficulties, Gadifer took charge of the invasion, while Bethencourt returned to Spain to seek the recognition and support of the Castilian king.</p><br>
<p>In 1405, de Béthencourt completed his conquest of the island, establishing its capital in Betancuria (Puerto Rosario took over the mantle as island capital in 1835). It is generally accepted that the island took its name from fuerte (strong) and ventura (wind), as mentioned by mallorcan navigator Angelino Dulcert in 1339.</p><br>
<p>In 1424 Pope Martin V, through the Betancuria Brief, edicted the establishment of the Bishopric of Fuerteventura, which encompassed all the Canary Islands save for the island of Lanzarote. The origin of this bishopric is directly related to the events that occurred after the Great Schism (1378-1417), in that the bishop of San Marcial del Rubicón of Lanzarote (at the time, the only diocese in the Canary Islands) did not recognize the papacy of Martin V, and instead adhered to anti-Pope Benedict XIII. The Bishopric of Fuerteventura was based in the Parish of Santa María de Betancuria, bestowing upon the latter the status of Grant Cathedral. After the reabsorbtion of the Diocese of San Marcial del Rubicón by the papacy of Pope of Martin V, the Bishopric of Fuerteventura was abolished in 1431, only seven years after it was created.</p><br>
<p>The first census recorded a population of some 1,200 inhabitants. The population increased gradually thereafter. In 1476 the territory became the Señorío Territorial de Fuerteventura, subjected to the Catholic Monarchs. In later years, the island was invaded by the Spanish, French and the English.</p><br>
<h3>Colonial Fuerteventura</h3><br>
<p>Over time, the island endured numerous pirate raids. A Berber lead expedition invaded in 1593, sweeping as far inland as the capital. Various castles were built along the coastline, to protect against these type of attacks. The population was moved inland as a second protective measure. Because of the raids, a first Captain General was dispatched to Fuerteventura, accompanied by a number of Sergeant Majors, to defend the island in the name of the Crown. At that time Betancuria became the religious capital of the island.</p><br>
<p>Two major pirate attacks took place in 1740, within a month of each other. Two separate bands of English privateers attempted to loot the town of Tuineje. These attacks were however successfully averted by the local population and the island&#39;s militia. This successful repelling of the invaders is celebrated at a re-enactment that takes place in Gran Tarajal every year in October.</p><br>
<p>The island&#39;s garrison was officially instated in 1708. Its colonel assumed the title of Governor at Arms, a hereditary, lifelong appointment which has remained in the Sánchez-Dumpiérrez family. In time, this family increasingly garnered power over the other islands through alliances with the family of Arias de Saavedra and the Lady of Fuerteventura. During the same year the Assistant Parish of La Oliva and Pájara was created, to become operational in 1711. On December 17, 1790 the Assistant Parish of Tuineje was created, which became a new parish division on June 23, 1792 under the bishop Tavira, with lands including part of the Jandía peninsular, and with a population of 1,670 inhabitants. 1780 saw the start of a barrilla plantation industry.</p><br>
<h3>To the present</h3><br>
<p>In 1852, a free trade zone was extended by Isabella II to the Canary Islands. Military island rule, which began in 1708, was finally dissolved in 1859, and Puerto de Cabras (now Puerto del Rosario) became the new capital.</p><br>
<p>The Canary Islands obtained self-governance in 1912. In 1927, Fuerteventura and Lanzarote became part of the province of Gran Canaria. The seat of the island&#39;s government (cabildo insular) is located in Puerto del Rosario. A total of 74,983 people lived on the island in 2003.</p><br>
<p>By the 1940s the island had an airport (just west of Puerto del Rosario on the road to Tindaya, still visible today). Mass tourism began to arrive in the mid-1960s, facilitated by the construction of Fuerteventura Airport at El Matorral and the first tourist hotels.</p><br>
<p>The island&#39;s proximity (a mere 100 km) to the West African coast and the fact that it is part of the Schengen territory make it a prime target destination for undocumented immigrants. However, many have perished while attempting the crossing.</p><br>
<h2>Environment</h2><br>
<h3>Geography</h3><br>
<p>The elongated island has an area of 1,660 km&sup2;. The island is 100 km long and 31 km wide. It is part of the province of Las Palmas. It is divided into six municipalities:</p><br>
<p>Antigua</p><br>
<p>Betancuria</p><br>
<p>La Oliva</p><br>
<p>Pájara</p><br>
<p>Puerto del Rosario</p><br>
<p>Tuineje</p><br>
<p>100 individual settlements are distributed through these municipalities. A nearby islet, Islote de Lobos, is part of the municipality of La Oliva.</p><br>
<p>Located just 100 km off the coast of north Africa, it is the second biggest of the islands, after Tenerife, and has the longest white sand beaches in the archipelago. The island is a destination for sun, beach and watersports enthusiasts. It lies at the same latitude as Florida and Mexico and temperatures rarely fall below 18 &deg;C or rise above 32 &deg;C. It counts 152 separate beaches along its seaboard — 50 km of white sand and 25 km of black volcanic shingle.</p><br>
<h3>Geology</h3><br>
<p>Fuerteventura is the oldest island in the Canary Islands dating back 20 million years to a volcanic eruption from the Canary hotspot. The majority of the island was created about 5 million years ago and since then has been eroded by wind and precipitation. On the seabed off the West coast of the island rests an enormous slab of bedrock 22 km long and 11 km wide, which appears to have slid off the island largely intact at some point in prehistory, similar to the predicted future collapse of Cumbre Vieja, a geological fault on another Canary Island, La Palma. The last volcanic activity in Fuerteventura occurred between 4,000 and 5,000 years ago.</p><br>
<p>The highest point in Fuerteventura is Pico de la Zarza (807 m) in the Southwestern part of the island. Geographical features include Istmo de la Pared which is 5 km wide and is the narrowest part of Fuerteventura. The island is divided into two parts, the northern portion which is Maxorata and the southwestern part called the Jandía peninsula.</p><br>
<h3>Beaches</h3><br>
<p>Fuerteventura was chosen among 500 European destinations by the Quality Coast International Certification Program of the European Coastal and Marine Union as one of the most attractive tourist destinations for visitors interested in cultural heritage, environment and sustainability.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>The climate on Fuerteventura is pleasant throughout the year. The island is hence referred to as the island of eternal spring. The sea regulates air temperature, diverting hot Sahara winds away from the island. The island&#39;s name in English translates as "strong fortune" or "strong wind", the Spanish word for wind being viento. During the winter months, temperatures average a high of 22 &deg;C and a low of around 15 &deg;C, whereas during the summer a mean high of 28 &deg;C and a low of 20 &deg;C can be expected. Precipitation is about 147 mm per year, most of which falls in autumn and winter. December is the month with highest rainfall.</p><br>
<p>A sandstorm known as the Calima (similar to the Sirocco wind, which blows to the North of the Sahara, to Europe) may blow from the Sahara Desert to the Northwest, and can cause high temperatures, low visibility and drying air. Temperatures during this phenomenon rise temporarily by approximately 10 degrees Celsius. The wind brings in fine red dust, The fine white sand is not blown in from Sahara, It is made up of dead coral reef and local seabed upheaval. visibility can drop to between 100 to 200 m or even lower and can even bring African locusts to the island.</p><br>
<h3>Wildlife</h3><br>
<p>The island is home to one of the two surviving populations of the threatened Canarian Egyptian vulture. It is also inhabited by many wild dogs and cats. On the barren, rocky land there are Barbary ground squirrels and geckos. Fuerteventura also hosts several migratory and nesting birds. The island has significant populations of the collared dove, common swifts and several finch species especially in the vicinity of holiday developments.</p><br>
<p>Despite its arid climate, the island is also home to a surprisingly large insect fauna. Butterflies which commonly occur on the island include the clouded yellow (Colias hyale) and the bath white (Pontia daplidice) which feeds on xerophytic cruciferae. The island is also home to the monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) and its close African relative Danaus chrysippus. Around holiday developments such as Caleta de Fuste, water is relatively abundant, and dragonfly species including the blue emperor, Anax imperator and the scarlet darter, Crocothemis erythraea can be found. The islands sand dunes and shoreline are home to a number of bee and wasp species including the large Eumenid caterpillar hunting wasp, Delta dimidiatipenne and the striking blue banded bee, (Amegilla canifrons).</p><br>
<p>Hawkmoths also occur on the island. One of the more notable species is Hyles tithymali which feeds on endemic spurges such as Euphorbia regis-jubae. Acherontia atropos, the deaths-head hawkmoth also occurs on the island presumably feeding on members of the Solanaceae, for example, Datura innoxia and Nicotiana glauca which are common weeds in the vicinity of human habitation.</p><br>
<h2>Natural symbols</h2><br>
<p>The official symbols from nature associated with Fuerteventura are Chlamydotis undulata fuertaventurae (hubara or houbara) and Euphorbia handiensis (Cardón de Jandía).</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<h3>Population</h3><br>
<p>The island has a population of 74,983. Throughout its long history, Fuerteventura has suffered from a population decline due to the economic situation and the climate, which have made it into a desert island. However, the development of tourism during the 1980s has caused the population to grow year on year since then, doubling it in a little less than a decade.</p><br>
<p>In 2005, with 86,642 registered inhabitants, the Fuerteventura population was formed by the following:</p><br>
<p>Born on the island: 30,364</p><br>
<p>Born on another Canary Island: 13,175</p><br>
<p>Born elsewhere in Spain: 20,938</p><br>
<p>Born in other countries: 22,165</p><br>
<p>Comparing this data with the 2001 census shows that the number of permanent residents born on the island has increased by just 3,000. The number who have moved in from abroad has increased by 22,910, making this the biggest contributor to population growth in recent years.</p><br>
<h3>Education</h3><br>
<p>The island has 116 schools, with a total of 14,337 pupils. Of these, 45 are primary schools, ten are secondary schools, six are for Baccalaureate students and four are vocational colleges.</p><br>
<p>Fuerteventura also has a centre linked with the National University of Distance Education, offering courses in many subjects including economics, business studies, law, history and tourism.</p><br>
<h3>State administration</h3><br>
<p>Fuerteventura is governed by the Island Department of the Government of Spain, which holds the rank of a Government Subdepartment. The government building is located in the centre of the capital city, in front of the parish church of the Virgin of Rosario, the patron saint of Puerto del Rosario municipality.</p><br>
<p>This institution is charged with representing the Government of Spain on the island, and managing all the functions that are not under control of the Canarian Government. This includes the following public services:</p><br>
<p>Island Security Forces (National Police and Guardia Civil)</p><br>
<p>Puerto del Rosario port and Fuerteventura Airport</p><br>
<p>Tax Agency</p><br>
<p>Customs</p><br>
<p>the Maritime and Coastguard department</p><br>
<p>Driving licences, Traffic and Highways</p><br>
<p>Immigration - the Immigration Detention Centre and residential permits</p><br>
<p>Social Security</p><br>
<p>Red Cross</p><br>
<p>Seprona (the Nature Protection Service)</p><br>
<p>Passports</p><br>
<p>Since 30 June 2007, the island&#39;s governor has been Eustaquio Juan Santana Gil. 4</p><br>
<h3>Island Council of Fuerteventura (Cabildo)</h3><br>
<p>The councils, formed as part of the Councils Act of 1912, administer the Canary Islands and have two principal functions. On one hand, they perform services for the Autonomous Community, and on the other, they are the local government centre for the island. In the 2003 elections, Mario Cabrera González was elected as president representing the Canarian Coalition, with 31.02% of the votes, followed by the Spanish Socialist Workers&#39; Party with 27.53%, represented by the Vice President Domingo Fuentes Curbelo.</p><br>
<h3>Municipalities</h3><br>
<p>The island is divided into six municipalities with their respective city councils which form part of the FECAM (Federation of Canarian Municipalities). They are governed by the basic legislation of the local regime and their respective organic rules. The populations of the municipalities are as follows:</p><br>
<p>Antigua (10,371)</p><br>
<p>Betancuria (680)</p><br>
<p>La Oliva (21,996)</p><br>
<p>Pájara (20,821)</p><br>
<p>Puerto del Rosario (35,667)</p><br>
<p>Tuineje (13,632)</p><br>
<p>In turn, these municipalities are organised into two associations: the Mancomunidad de Municipios del Centro-Norte de Fuerteventura formed from La Oliva and Puerto del Rosario, and the remaining municipalities make up the Mancomunidad de Municipios del Centro-Sur de Fuerteventura.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>The economy of Fuerteventura is mainly based on tourism. Primary tourist areas are located around the existing towns of Corralejo in the north and Morro Jable in Jandia, plus the purely tourist development of Caleta de Fuste, south of Puerto del Rosario. Other main industries are fishing and agriculture (cereals and vegetables). The famous Majorero cheese is locally made from the milk of the indigenous majorera goat.</p><br>
<p>In 2009, Fuerteventura recorded the highest EU regional unemployment rate at a NUTS3 level, at 29.2 percent.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>The first tourist hotel was built in 1965 followed by the construction of Fuerteventura Airport at El Matorral, heralding the dawn of a new era for the island. Fuerteventura, with its 3,000 sunshine hours a year, was placed firmly on the world stage as a major European holiday destination.</p><br>
<p>While having fully developed tourist facilities, the island has not experienced the overdevelopment found on some other islands and consequently caters for visitors attracted by its rugged natural beauty. Nonetheless, it remains a popular destination for predominantly but not exclusively German, British, French and Italian tourists.</p><br>
<p>The summer Trade Winds and winter swells of the Atlantic make this a year-round surfers&#39; paradise, with more exposed areas on the north and west shores such as Corralejo and El Cotillo proving most popular. Wind surfing takes places at locations around the island. Sailors, scuba divers and big-game fishermen are all drawn to these clear blue Atlantic waters where whales, dolphins, marlin and turtles are all common sights. With many hills present throughout the Island, hikers are also attracted to this Island.</p><br>
<p>Excellent sandy beaches are found in many locations. Western beaches, such as those around El Cotillo, can experience strong surf. The beaches adjoining the extensive sand dunes east of Corralejo are popular, as are the more protected extensive sandy shores of the Playa de Sotavento de Jandia on the southeastern coast between Costa Calma and the Morro Jable. Naked sun bathing and swimming are the norm almost on all beaches.</p><br>
<p>Much of the interior, with its large plains, lavascapes and volcanic mountains, consists of protected areas, although there are organised tours and vehicular access across them.</p><br>
<h2>Art and culture</h2><br>
<h3>Traditional holidays</h3><br>
<p>Like the rest of the Canaries, Carnival is traditionally one of the biggest festivals celebrated on the island. It is celebrated in different ways in all the towns during February and March. These festivities have a different theme each year. They include activities such as parades and galas to choose the carnival king.</p><br>
<h3>Concerts and festivals</h3><br>
<p>There are many concerts and festivals held in the auditoriums, such as the Festival of Canarian Music. They are also held in smaller venues across the island, featuring bands such as Estopa, Van Gogh&#39;s Ear, and King Afrhica.</p><br>
<p>Lebrancho Rock: in 2004, the Town Hall of Puerto del Rosario started this initiative for the growing number of local bands who had been performing in the area for years but had not had the chance to play at the same event.</p><br>
<p>Fuertemusica: like Lebrancho Rock, this festival aims to encourage the local or emerging groups. It started in the same year. This festival is mainly for groups that are already known in the music world. It takes place in El Cotillo.</p><br>
<p>In the municipality of Betancuria (more specifically in the village of Vega de Rio Palmas) held every year the festivities in honor of the Virgen de la Peña, patron saint of the island of Fuerteventura, the most representative is the pilgrimage in which are involved people from all corners of the island. The holiday is celebrated on the third Saturday of September.</p><br>
<p>Festival Internacional de Cometas/International Kite Festival is held on the second week of November each year centering on the Corralejo Beaches. It attracts kitefliers and kite surfers from all over Europe. It is popular because the winds are warm and constant and the beaches become filled with hundreds of colourful kites of all shapes and sizes.</p><br>
<h3>Auditoriums</h3><br>
<p>Fuerteventura has three auditoriums. These are used for all types of performing art. They are also used for non-artistic purposes, such as conferences, charity galas and political meetings.</p><br>
<p>The Isle of Fuerteventura Auditorium</p><br>
<p>Gran Tarajal Auditorium</p><br>
<p>Corralejo Auditorium</p><br>
<h3>Central library</h3><br>
<p>The Central Library of the Island is located in Antigua&#39;s city centre, in the public university. In addition to providing the traditional library services, it has an 180-seat multipurpose room, air conditioning, a wifi zone, and a multimedia room used for seminars, presentations, film festivals etc.</p><br>
<h3>Museums and exhibition spaces</h3><br>
<p>The island has several museums with different themes and plenty of exhibition spaces, both public and private. These include:</p><br>
<p>The Antigua Windmill Craft Centre</p><br>
<p>The Salt Museum</p><br>
<p>The Atalayita Archeological Interpretation Centre</p><br>
<h3>Sculpture park</h3><br>
<p>In addition to the museums, the capital Puerto del Rosario has an open-air sculpture park consisting of around 100 sculptures by different artists scattered across the city. Most of them were created for the International Symposium of Sculpture celebrated annually since 2001. During the festival, artists come from all over the world to erect their sculptures in the open air, in full view of passers by.</p><br>
<h2>Main sights</h2><br>
<p>Sites of interest include Corralejo and El Jable to the north which are made up of fine sand dunes whilst the south is filled with long beaches and remote bays. The constant winds blowing onto the beaches provide a paradise for windsurfing. Surfing is common on the west and north coasts where there are large waves. Windsurfing is common around Corralejo and Playas de Sotavento and wave sailing (windsurfing on the waves) on the coast along the northern half of the island. El Cotillo is a small fishing village in the north-west of the Island famous for a very long beach to the south of the village and few very calm beaches to the north. The northern beaches frequented by snorkeling enthusiasts and sun worshippers alike are referred to as lakes by the locals.</p><br>
<p>At Cofete on the western side of Jandía a remote and imposing house - Villa Winter - looks out to sea across wide and generally empty beaches. It was reputedly built by a Mr Winter on land given by Generalisimo Franco. Despite being one of the most beautiful parts of Fuerteventura Cofete has very little touristic facilities.</p><br>
<p>For a time, the beaches were home to a popular accidental attraction. On 18 January 1994 the once-beautiful and proud United States Lines ocean liner SS American Star (former America, USS West Point, Australis) was beached in Playa de Garcey during a severe storm. Within a year, she broke in two and later lost her stern. By 2007 the rest of the severely deteriorated ship had collapsed onto her port side, gradually keeling over further and almost completely submerged. By 2008-2012, most of the remains finally slipped below the surface.</p><br>
<h2>Food</h2><br>
<p>The cuisine is fairly basic due to the customs and climate conditions. They share this simplicity with the other Canary islands, and similarly to them, they use a large quantity of fish. They also use whatever they can grow in the near-barren land. This includes papas arrugadas, a dish of wrinkled potatoes usually served with mojo, which is a hot pepper sauce or with puchero canario, a meat stew.</p><br>
<p>Seafood is prepared in many ways traditionally, such as pejines (salted fish), jareas, or sancocho (a type of stew) made from fish, generally the grouper, corvina or sama, boiled after salting, and served with mojo, potatoes, or gofio (a type of grain). People are also very keen on the mussels and limpets collected on the island&#39;s coasts.</p><br>
<p>They also use meat such as beef and pork to make different dishes or simply to for braising, but their main meat is goat, both from the kids and from the older animals. They eat the goat roasted or stewed. Goats are not only useful for their meat - the Fuerteventurans also use the milk to make the cheese majorero, which has won many prizes. The majorero is mostly made of goats milk, and occasionally it is up to 15% ewes milk. It is cured in pimento oil or gofio meal. Majorero and palmero cheese are the only two Canarian cheeses with protected denomination of origin.</p><br>
<h2>Sport</h2><br>
<p>Many sports are commonly played in Fuerteventura, both in the open air and in sports centres across the island.</p><br>
<h3>Native sports</h3><br>
<p>These are the Canarian sports found on the island:</p><br>
<h4>Canarian wrestling</h4><br>
<p>The wrestling takes place in a ring of sand called the terrero. Inside it, the two contestants try to knock each other over. Fuerteventura has 14 terreros distributed through all the towns except Betancuria.</p><br>
<p>Antigua: Terrero de Antigua.</p><br>
<p>La Oliva: Terrero Venancio Guerra and Terrero de Villaverde.</p><br>
<p>Pájara: Terrero Miguel Díaz La Lajita, Terrero de Morro Jable a Terrero de Pájara.</p><br>
<p>Puerto del Rosario: Terrero de Casillas del Angel, Terrero Manuel Nieves, Terrero de Puerto Cabras, Terrero de Tefía a Terrero de Tetir.</p><br>
<p>Tuineje: Terrero de Gran Tarajal, Terrero de Tamasite, and Terrero Pedro Sánchez in Tarajalejo.</p><br>
<p>The island also has a school wrestling league organized by the council and a programme to promote this sport in clubs. Twelve wrestling schools participate in this, based in Antigua, Costa Calma, El Matorral, La Lajita, Lajares, Las Playitas, Morro Jable, Puerto del Rosario, Tefía, Tetir, Unión Sur and Villaverde.</p><br>
<h4>Juego del Palo</h4><br>
<p>Juego del Palo is a Canarian martial art which literally translates as game of the stick. It is played by two players both armed with sticks. They aim to defeat each other without making contact with their opponent&#39;s body. The origin of this game is unclear. All we know is that it is based on a method of combat used by the precolonial Canarian people.</p><br>
<p>Fuerteventura has the following Palo clubs:</p><br>
<p>Club-Escuela Dunas de Corralejo.</p><br>
<p>Club-Escuela Huriamen de Villaverde.</p><br>
<p>Club-Escuela Puerto Cabras.</p><br>
<p>Club-Escuela Sorinque de Gran Tarajal.</p><br>
<h4>Canarian boules</h4><br>
<p>This is a similar game to the French Pétanque which is actually played very little on the island, although there are a few teams and courts. Basically the game consists of scoring points by throwing a ball to get it as near as possible to an object called a mingue or boliche. It is played on a rectangular sand or earth pitch which is 18 to 25 m long and 3.5 to 6 m wide.</p><br>
<p>http://www.playaboule.com/Simple_petanque_rules.aspx</p><br>
<h3>Watersports</h3><br>
<p>The sea and climate conditions make the island the perfect place for a huge variety of watersports.</p><br>
<h4>Surfing, windsurfing and kitesurfing</h4><br>
<p>Many types of surfing are popular on the island, including traditional surfing, windsurfing (where the board is propelled by a sail) and most recently kitesurfing. The island has many schools and courses dedicated to teaching these sports.</p><br>
<p>The sports where Fuerteventura has the most impact internationally are windsurfing and kitesurfing, mainly due to the International Windsurfing and Kiteboarding Championship. This has run since 1985 and is held at Playas de Sotavento in Pájara municipality. Many important wind and kitesurfing figures compete in this championship, such as the several-times world windsurfing champion Björn Dunkerbeck and Gisela Pulido, the very young kiteboarding champion from Tarifa.</p><br>
<p>Many Canarian windsurfers are on the Canarian Waveriders circuit, which has been based in Corralejo since 2005.</p><br>
<h4>Diving</h4><br>
<p>Diving schools are just as frequent as surfing ones, all around the coast of Fuerteventura. Unlike the other islands of the archipelago, Fuerteventura has a shelf which at some points goes up to 30 km, making it an ideal place to practice this sport.</p><br>
<p>Two of the most useful points for diving are the coast off Playa del Matorral in the South, and the zone between Lobos Island and Corralejo in the north. It is here in Corralejo that the International Sea and Submarine Photography Festival takes places, known as Fimarsub Corralejo - Lobos. During the festival there are beginners&#39; lessons, professional dives, lessons in underwater photography, screenings and other events related to the sport.</p><br>
<h4>Swimming</h4><br>
<p>There are many swimming pools on the island but the most obvious place to swim is in the open sea. There is an annual swim from Lobos Island to Fuerteventura, held every year since 1999. The event attracts amateur swimmers from all over the Canaries and Spain, and also swimming professionals such as David Meca and Maarten Van der Weijden, the paralympist Jesús Collado Alarcón who won gold medals for 100m backstroke and butterfly in Athens 2004, and Xavi Torres Ramis, the paralympic champion in Barcelona &#39;92, Sydney and Atlanta.</p><br>
<h4>Sailing</h4><br>
<p>The island holds competitions involving different types of boat, such as the lateen and the Optimist. An interesting event is the Tour of Fuerteventura by Kayak, which is organised as a series of stages rather than a competition, and is an easy way to explore the island.</p><br>
<h4>Fishing</h4><br>
<p>The most notable competition here is the Gran Tarajal Fishing Open.</p><br>
<h3>Other sports</h3><br>
<p>Since 2004 the Marcha Ciclotourista has been held in La Oliva and the Criterium Ciclista has been held in Corralejo (also part of the La Oliva municipality) since 2005. Participants include Euskaltel-Euskadi, T-Mobile and a team from Orbea. These competitions have contributed to local interest in the sport and the first professional local team, the Fuerteventura-Canarias, was formed, initially run by Óscar Guerrero, director of Kaiku, although they have not competed for the past few seasons.</p><br>
<p>There are various motocross circuits on the island, including Los Alares in Antigua and Isla de Fuerteventura in Puerto del Rosario municipality. They hold regular trials, some of which form part of the Canarian Regional Motocross Championship. Throughout the year there are gravel rally races. Two are part of the Canarian Dirt Rally Championship. These are the Antiguan Rally and the La Oliva Rally.</p><br>
<p>The island&#39;s main football clubs are CD Union Puerto and CD Cotillo, who play in Group XII of the Spanish Tercera División.</p><br>
<p>The resort Playitas on the south coast is since around 2008 equipped with a 50 m swimming pool and has become a destination for triathlon training camps for Europeans. An annual race called Challenge Fuerteventura is held there on the half ironman distance.</p><br>
<h2>People</h2><br>
<p>Manuel Velázquez Cabrera: born in Tiscamanita in 1863, the politician and lawyer who created the island&#39;s council.</p><br>
<p>Juan Ismael: the painter, cartoonist and poet born in La Oliva in 1907, considered one of the great Canarian surrealists.</p><br>
<p>Eustaquio Gopar: born in Tuineje in 1866. He was one of the Spanish soldiers involved in the Siege of Baler together with Major Rafael Alonso Mederos, who died of beri-beri during the siege. On his return Eustaquio became mayor over his native people. He held this post both during the republic and under Franco.</p><br>
<p>Guam  is an unincorporated and organized territory of the United States in Micronesia in the western Pacific Ocean. The capital city of Guam is Hagåtña and the most populous city is Dededo. The inhabitants of Guam are called Guamanians, and they are American citizens by birth. Indigenous Guamanians are the Chamorros, who are related to other Austronesian natives to the west in the Philippines and Taiwan.</p><br>
<p>In 2016, 162,742 people resided on Guam. Guam has an area of 210 square miles and a population density of 775 /mi2. In Oceania, it is the largest and southernmost of the Mariana Islands and the largest island in Micronesia. Among its municipalities, Mongmong-Toto-Maite has the highest population density at 3,691 /mi2, whereas Inarajan and Umatac have the lowest density at 119 /mi2. The highest point is Mount Lamlam at 1,332 ft above sea level. Since the 1960s, the economy has been supported by two industries: tourism and the United States Armed Forces.</p><br>
<p>The indigenous Chamorros settled the island approximately 4,000 years ago. Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan, while in the service of Spain, was the first European to visit the island on March 6, 1521. Guam was colonized by Spain in 1668 with settlers, including Diego Luis de San Vitores, a Catholic Jesuit missionary. Between the 16th century and the 18th century, Guam was an important stopover for the Spanish Manila Galleons. During the Spanish–American War, the United States captured Guam on June 21, 1898. Under the Treaty of Paris, Spain ceded Guam to the United States on December 10, 1898. Guam is among the seventeen non-self-governing territories listed by the United Nations.</p><br>
<p>Before World War II, there were only five American jurisdictions in the Pacific Ocean, these being, Guam and Wake Island in Micronesia, American Samoa and Hawai&#39;i in Polynesia, and the Philippines in the Malay Archipelago of Southeast Asia.</p><br>
<p>On December 7, 1941, hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Guam was captured by the Japanese, who occupied the island for two and a half years. During the occupation, Guamanians were subjected to beheadings, forced labor, rape, and torture. American forces recaptured the island on July 21, 1944; Liberation Day commemorates the victory.</p><br>
<p>An unofficial but frequently used territorial motto is "Where Americas Day Begins", which refers to the islands close proximity to the international date line.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The original inhabitants of Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands were the Chamorro people, who are believed to be descendants of Austronesian people originating from Southeast Asia as early as 2000 BC.</p><br>
<p>The ancient Chamorro society had four classes: chamorri (chiefs), matua (upper class), achaot (middle class), and manachang (lower class). The matua were located in the coastal villages, which meant they had the best access to fishing grounds, whereas the manachang were located in the interior of the island. Matua and manachang rarely communicated with each other, and matua often used achaot as intermediaries. There were also "makåhna" (similar to shamans), skilled in healing and medicine. Belief in spirits of ancient Chamorros called "Taotao mona" still persists as a remnant of pre-European culture. Their society was organized along matrilineal clans.</p><br>
<p>Latte stones are stone pillars that are found only in the Mariana Islands; they are a recent development in Pre-Contact Chamorro society. The latte-stone was used as a foundation on which thatched huts were built. Latte stones consist of a base shaped from limestone called the haligi and with a capstone, or tåsa, made either from a large brain coral or limestone, placed on top. A possible source for these stones, the Rota Latte Stone Quarry, was discovered in 1925 on Rota.</p><br>
<h3>Magellan's travel to Guam</h3><br>
<p>The first European to travel to Guam was Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan, sailing for the King of Spain, when he sighted the island on March 6, 1521, during his fleet&#39;s circumnavigation of the globe. "Those people are poor, but ingenious and very thievish, on account of which we called those three islands Islas de los Ladrones ("Islands of thieves")."</p><br>
<h3>Spanish colonization and the Manila galleons</h3><br>
<p>Despite Magellan&#39;s visit, Guam was not officially claimed by Spain until January 26, 1565, by General Miguel López de Legazpi. From 1565 to 1815, Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands, the only Spanish outpost in the Pacific Ocean east of the Philippines, was an important resting stop for the Manila galleons, a fleet that covered the Pacific trade route between Acapulco and Manila. To protect these Pacific fleets, Spain built several defensive structures that still stand today, such as Fort Nuestra Señora de la Soledad in Umatac. Guam is the biggest single segment of Micronesia, the largest islands between the island of Kyushu (Japan), New Guinea, the Philippines, and the Hawaiian Islands.</p><br>
<p>Spanish colonization commenced on June 15, 1668, with the arrival of Diego Luis de San Vitores and Pedro Calungsod, who established the first Catholic church. The islands were part of the Spanish East Indies governed from the Philippines, which were in turn part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain based in Mexico City. Other reminders of colonial times include the old Governors Palace in Plaza de España and the Spanish Bridge, both in Hagatña. Guams Cathedral Dulce Nombre de Maria was formally opened on February 2, 1669, as was the Royal College of San Juan de Letran. Guam, along with the rest of the Mariana and Caroline Islands, were treated as part of Spains colony in the Philippines. While the islands Chamorro culture has indigenous roots, the cultures of both Guam and the Northern Marianas have many similarities with Spanish culture due to three centuries of Spanish rule.</p><br>
<h3>Internal conflicts</h3><br>
<p>Intermittent warfare lasting from July 23, 1670, until July 1695, plus the typhoons of 1671 and 1693, and in particular the smallpox epidemic of 1688, reduced the Chamorro population from 50,000 to 10,000 to less than 5,000. Precipitated by the death of Quipuha, and the murder of Father San Vitores and Pedro Calungsod by local rebel chief Matapang, tensions led to a number of conflicts. Captain Juan de Santiago started a campaign to conquer the island, which was continued by the successive commanders of the Spanish forces.</p><br>
<p>After his arrival in 1674, Captain Damian de Esplana ordered the arrest of rebels who attacked the population of certain towns. Hostilities eventually led to the destruction of villages such as Chochogo, Pepura, Tumon, Sidia-Aty, Sagua, Nagan and Ninca. Starting in June 1676, the first Spanish Governor of Guam, Capt. Francisco de Irrisarri y Vinar, controlled internal affairs more strictly than his predecessors in order to curb tensions. He also ordered the construction of schools, roads and other infrastructure. Later, Capt. Jose de Quiroga arrived in 1680 and continued some of the development projects started by his predecessors. He also continued the search for the rebels who had assassinated Father San Vitores, resulting in campaigns against the rebels which were hiding out in some islands, eventually leading to the death of Matapang, Hurao and Aguarin. Quiroga brought some natives from the northern islands to Guam, ordering the population to live in a few large villages. These included Jinapsan, Umatac, Pago, Agat and Inarajan, where he built a number of churches. By July 1695, Quiroga had completed the conquest of Guam, Rota, Tinian and Aguigan.</p><br>
<h3>Expulsion of the Jesuits</h3><br>
<p>On February 26, 1767, Charles III of Spain issued a decree confiscating the property of the Jesuits and banishing them from Spain and her possessions. As a consequence, the Jesuit fathers on Guam departed on November 2, 1769, on the schooner Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe, abandoning their churches, rectories and ranches.</p><br>
<p>The arrival of Governor Don Mariano Tobias, on September 15, 1771, brought agricultural reforms, including making land available to the islanders for cultivation, encouraged the development of cattle raising, imported deer and water buffalo from Manila, donkeys and mules from Acapulco, established cotton mills and salt pans, free public schools, and the first Guam militia. Later, he was transferred to Manila in June 1774.</p><br>
<h3>Post-Napoleonic era</h3><br>
<p>Following the Napoleonic Wars, many Spanish colonies in the Western Hemisphere had become independent, shifting the economic dependence of Guam from Mexico to the Philippines. Don Francisco Ramon de Villalobos, who became governor in 1831, improved economic conditions including the promotion of rice cultivation and the establishment of a leper hospital.</p><br>
<p>Otto von Kotzebue visited the island in November 1817, and Louis de Freycinet in March 1819. Jules Dumont d&#39;Urville made two visits, the first in May 1828. The island became a rest stop for whalers starting in 1823.</p><br>
<p>A devastating typhoon struck the island on August 10, 1848, followed by a severe earthquake on January 25, 1849, which resulted in many refugees from the Caroline Islands, victims of the resultant tsunami. After a smallpox epidemic killed 3,644 Guamanians in 1856, Carolinians and Japanese were permitted to settle in the Marianas. Guam received nineteen Filipino prisoners after their failed 1872 Cavite mutiny.</p><br>
<h3>Spanish–American War and World War II</h3><br>
<p>After almost four centuries as part of the Kingdom of Spain and its 400 year old, globe-girdling Spanish Empire, the United States occupied the island following Spain&#39;s defeat in the 1898 Spanish–American War, as part of the Treaty of Paris of 1898. Guam was transferred to the United States Navy control on December 23, 1898, by Executive Order 108-A from 25th President William McKinley. Guam came to serve as a station for American merchant and warships traveling to and from the Philippines (another American acquisition from Spain) while the Northern Mariana Islands were sold by Spain to Germany for part of its rapidly expanding German Empire, then following the German defeat in World War I (1914-1918) became a League of Nations Mandate in 1919 with the nearby Empire of Japan as the mandatory ("trustee") as a member nation of the victorious Allies in the "Great War". Following the Philippine–American War (also known as the Philippine Insurrection, 1899-1902), rebel nationalist leaders Emilio Aguinaldo and Apolinario Mabini were exiled on Guam in 1901 after their capture.</p><br>
<p>A marine seaplane unit was stationed in Guam from 1921 to 1930, the first in the Pacific. Pan American World Airways established a seaplane base on the island for its trans-Pacific San Francisco-Manila-Hong Kong route, and the Commercial Pacific Cable Company had earlier built a telegraph/telephone station in 1903 for its trans-oceanic communication line. During World War II (1939-1945), Guam was attacked and invaded by Japan on Monday, December 8, 1941, shortly after the attack on Pearl Harbor&#39;s American Pacific fleet and naval/air bases in Hawaii, hours before. In addition, Japan made major military moves into Southeast Asia and the East Indies islands of the South Pacific Ocean against the British and Dutch colonies, opening a new wider Pacific phase in the Second World War.</p><br>
<p>The Northern Mariana Islands had become a League of Nations mandate assigned to Japan in 1919, pursuant to the Treaty of Versailles of 1919. It was the Chamorros indigenous island people from the Northern Marianas who were brought to Guam to serve as interpreters and in other capacities for the occupying Japanese force. The Guamanian Chamorros were treated as an occupied enemy by the Japanese military. After the war, this would cause resentment between the Guamanian Chamorros and the Chamorros of the Northern Marianas. Guam&#39;s Chamorros believed their northern brethren should have been compassionate towards them, whereas having been administered by Japan for over 30 years, the Northern Mariana Chamorros were loyal to the Japanese government.</p><br>
<p>The Japanese occupation of Guam lasted for approximately thirty-one months. During this period, the indigenous people of Guam were subjected to forced labor, family separation, incarceration, execution, concentration camps and forced prostitution. Approximately one thousand people died during the occupation, according to later Congressional committee testimony in 2004. Some historians estimate that war violence killed 10% of Guam&#39;s then 20,000 population.</p><br>
<p>The United States returned and fought the Battle of Guam from July 21 to August 10, 1944, to recapture the island from Japanese military occupation. More than 18,000 Japanese were killed as only 485 surrendered. Sergeant Shoichi Yokoi, who surrendered in January 1972, appears to have been the last confirmed Japanese holdout for 28 years in the forested back country on Guam. The United States also captured and occupied the nearby Northern Marianas Islands.</p><br>
<p>North Field was established in 1944, and was renamed for Brigadier General James Roy Andersen (1904–1945) of the old USA Army Air Forces as Andersen Air Force Base.</p><br>
<h3>Post-war</h3><br>
<p>After World War II, the Guam Organic Act of 1950 established Guam as an unincorporated organized territory of the United States, provided for the structure of the islands civilian government, and granted the people USA citizenship. The Governor of Guam was federally appointed until 1968, when the Guam Elective Governor Act provided for the offices popular election. Since Guam is not a USA state, USA citizens residing on Guam are not allowed to vote for president and their congressional representative is a non-voting member.</p><br>
<h3>Vietnam War and later</h3><br>
<p>Andersen Air Force Base played a major role in the Vietnam War. The host unit was later designated the 36th Wing (36 WG), assigned to the Pacific Air Forces (PACAF) Thirteenth Air Force (13AF). In September 2012, 13 AF was inactivated and its functions merged into PACAF. The multinational Cope North military exercise is an annual event.</p><br>
<p>On August 6, 1997, Guam was the site of the Korean Air Flight 801 aircraft accident. The Boeing 747–300 jetliner was preparing to land when it crashed into a hill, killing 228 of the 254 people on board. Since 1974, about 124 historic sites in Guam have been recognized under the USA National Register of Historic Places. Guam temporarily hosted 100,000 Vietnamese refugees in 1975, and 6,600 Kurdish refugees in 1996.</p><br>
<p>In August 2017, North Korea warned that it might launch mid-range ballistic missiles into waters within 18 to 24 miles of Guam, following an exchange of threats between the governments of North Korea and the United States.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Guam lies between 13.2°N and 13.7°N and between 144.6°E and 145.0°E, and has an area of 212 square miles, making it the 32nd largest island of the United States. It is the southernmost and largest island in the Mariana island chain and is also the largest island in Micronesia. This island chain was created by the colliding Pacific and Philippine Sea tectonic plates. Guam is the closest land mass to the Mariana Trench, a deep subduction zone, that lies beside the island chain to the east. Challenger Deep, the deepest surveyed point in the Oceans, is southwest of Guam at 35,797 ft deep. The highest point in Guam is Mount Lamlam at an elevation of 1,334 ft.</p><br>
<p>The island of Guam is 30 mi long and 4 to 12 mi wide, three-fourths the size of Singapore. The island experiences occasional earthquakes due to its location on the western edge of the Pacific Plate and near the Philippine Sea Plate. In recent years, earthquakes with epicenters near Guam have had magnitudes ranging from 5.0 to 8.7. Unlike the Anatahan volcano in the Northern Mariana Islands, Guam is not volcanically active. However, due to its proximity to Anatahan, vog (i.e. volcanic smog) does occasionally affect Guam.</p><br>
<p>A coral table reef surrounds most of Guam, and the limestone plateau provides the source for most of the island&#39;s fresh water. Steep coastal cliffs dominate the north, while the southern end of the island is mountainous, with lower hills in between.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>Guam experiences a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen Af) – though its driest month of March almost averages dry enough to qualify as a tropical monsoon climate – moderated by seasonal easterly trade winds. The weather is generally very warm with little seasonal temperature variation. The mean high temperature is 86 &deg;F and mean low is 76 &deg;F with an average annual rainfall between 1981 and 2010 of around 98 in. Temperatures rarely exceed 90 &deg;F or fall below 70 &deg;F. The relative humidity commonly exceeds 84 percent at night throughout the year, but the average monthly humidity hovers near 66 percent. The dry season runs from December to June. The remaining months (July to November) constitute the wet season. The months of January and February are considered the coolest months of the year with overnight low temperatures of 70 to 75 °F and generally less oppressive humidity levels. The highest temperature ever recorded in Guam was 96 &deg;F on April 18, 1971, and April 1, 1990, and the lowest temperature ever recorded was 65 &deg;F on February 8, 1973.</p><br>
<p>Guam is located in Typhoon Alley and it is common for the island to be threatened by tropical storms and possible typhoons during the wet season. The highest risk of typhoons is during August through October. They can, however, occur year-round. The most intense typhoon to pass over Guam recently was Super Typhoon Pongsona, with sustained winds of 144 mph, gusts to 173 mph, which slammed Guam on December 8, 2002, leaving massive destruction. The wettest month on record at Guam Airport has been August 1997 with 38.49 in and the driest February 2015 with 0.15 in. The wettest calendar year has been 1976 with 131.70 in and the driest 1998 with 57.88 in. The most rainfall in a single day occurred on 15 October 1953 when 15.48 in fell.</p><br>
<p>Since Super Typhoon Pamela in 1976, wooden structures have been largely replaced by concrete structures. During the 1980s wooden utility poles began to be replaced by typhoon-resistant concrete and steel poles. After the local Government enforced stricter construction codes, many home and business owners built their structures out of reinforced concrete with installed typhoon shutters.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<h3>Ethnic groups</h3><br>
<p>Based on a 2010 estimate, the largest ethnic group are the native Chamorros, accounting for 37.3% of the total population. Other significant ethnic groups include those of Filipino (26.3%), White (7.1%), and Chuukese (7%) ethnicities. The rest are from other Pacific Islands or of Asian ancestry.</p><br>
<h3>Language</h3><br>
<p>The official languages of the island are English and Chamorro.</p><br>
<h3>Religion</h3><br>
<p>According to the Pew Research Center, 2010:</p><br>
<p>Roman Catholic 75%</p><br>
<p>Protestants 17.7%</p><br>
<p>Unaffiliated 1.7%</p><br>
<p>Other religions 1.6%</p><br>
<p>Folk religions 1.5%</p><br>
<p>Other Christians 1.4%</p><br>
<p>Buddhists 1.1%</p><br>
<p>Eastern Orthodox &lt;1%</p><br>
<p>Hindu &lt;1%</p><br>
<p>Muslim &lt;1%</p><br>
<p>Jews &lt;1%</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<p>Post-European-contact Chamorro Guamanian culture is a combination of American, Spanish, Filipino, other Micronesian Islander and Mexican traditions. Few indigenous pre-Hispanic customs remained following Spanish contact. Hispanic influences are manifested in the local language, music, dance, sea navigation, cuisine, fishing, games (such as batu, chonka, estuleks, and bayogu), songs and fashion.</p><br>
<p>During Spanish colonial rule (1668–1898) the majority of the population was converted to Roman Catholicism and religious festivities such as Easter and Christmas became widespread. Post-contact Chamorro cuisine is largely based on corn, and includes tortillas, tamales, atole and chilaquiles, which are a clear influence from Mesoamerica, principally Mexico, from Spanish trade with Asia.</p><br>
<p>The modern Chamorro language has many historical parallels to modern Philippine languages in that it is an Austronesian language which has absorbed much Spanish vocabulary. It is a Malayo-Polynesian language, along with such languages as Tagalog, Indonesian, Hawaiian, and even Maori. Despite being spoken in the mid Pacific Ocean, which is geographically closer to speakers of the Polynesian Islands, Chamorro is actually an outlier of the Sunda–Sulawesi languages subgroup. Chamorro is thus more closely related to, and a part of, the languages of the Malay Archipelago, rather than its neighbours in Polynesia. Among the languages of Malay Archipelago, Chamorro is most closely related to the languages in the south of the chain of islands, within Indonesia, rather than the languages of the north, in the Philippines, with which it shares linguistic Spanish colonial influence.</p><br>
<p>Also like Filipinos, many Chamorros possess Spanish surnames despite few of the inhabitants actually descending from the Spanish colonisers. Spanish names and surnames were adopted after their conversion to Roman Catholic Christianity in a phenomenon prompted by the imposition of the Catálogo alfabético de apellidos in Guam and other territories of the Spanish East Indies, most notably the Philippines.</p><br>
<p>Due to foreign cultural influence from Spain, most aspects of the early indigenous culture have been lost, though there has been a resurgence in preserving any remaining pre-Hispanic culture in the last few decades. Some scholars have traveled throughout the Pacific Islands conducting research to study what the original Chamorro cultural practices such as dance, language, and canoe building may have been like.</p><br>
<p>Two aspects of indigenous pre-Hispanic culture that withstood time are chenchule and inafamaolek. Chenchule is the intricate system of reciprocity at the heart of Chamorro society. It is rooted in the core value of inafamaolek. Historian Lawrence Cunningham in 1992 wrote, "In a Chamorro sense, the land and its produce belong to everyone. Inafamaolek, or interdependence, is the key, or central value, in Chamorro culture... Inafamaolek depends on a spirit of cooperation and sharing. This is the armature, or core, that everything in Chamorro culture revolves around. It is a powerful concern for mutuality rather than individualism and private property rights."</p><br>
<p>The core culture or Pengngan Chamorro is based on complex social protocol centered upon respect: From sniffing over the hands of the elders (called mangnginge in Chamorro), the passing down of legends, chants, and courtship rituals, to a person asking for permission from spiritual ancestors before entering a jungle or ancient battle grounds. Other practices predating Spanish conquest include galaide canoe-making, making of the belembaotuyan (a string musical instrument made from a gourd), fashioning of åcho atupat slings and slingstones, tool manufacture, Måtan Guma&#39; burial rituals, and preparation of herbal medicines by Suruhanu.</p><br>
<p>Master craftsmen and women specialize in weavings, including plaited work (niyok- and åkgak-leaf baskets, mats, bags, hats, and food containments), loom-woven material (kalachucha-hibiscus and banana fiber skirts, belts and burial shrouds), and body ornamentation (bead and shell necklaces, bracelets, earrings, belts and combs made from tortoise shells and Spondylus).</p><br>
<p>The cosmopolitan and multicultural nature of modern Guam poses challenges for Chamorros struggling to preserve their culture and identity amidst forces of acculturation. The increasing numbers of Chamorros, especially Chamorro youth, relocating to the USA Mainland has further complicated both definition and preservation of Chamorro identity. While only a few masters exist to continue traditional art forms, the resurgence of interest among the Chamorros to preserve the language and culture has resulted in a growing number of young Chamorros who seek to continue the ancient ways of the Chamorro people.</p><br>
<h3>Sports</h3><br>
<h4>Pacific Games</h4><br>
<p>Guam hosted the Pacific Games in 1975 and 1999. At the 2007 Games, Guam finished 7th of 22 countries and 14th at the 2011 Games.</p><br>
<h4>Soccer</h4><br>
<p>The Guam national football team was founded in 1975 and joined FIFA in 1996. Guam was once considered one of FIFA&#39;s weakest teams, and experienced their first victory over a FIFA-registered side in 2009, when they defeated Mongolia in the East Asian Cup.</p><br>
<p>Guam entered the 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification Group D. Guam hosted qualifying games on the island for the first time in 2015. During the qualifying round, Guam clinched their first FIFA World Cup Qualifying win by defeating Turkmenistan. Since then, the team has experienced moderate success in the Qualifying Round with a record of 2–1–1.</p><br>
<p>The national team plays at the Guam National Football Stadium, which has a capacity of 1,000. The men&#39;s national football team are known as the "matao" team. Matao is the definition of highest level or "noble" class; the matao team have done exceptionally well under the head coach Gary White. As of 2016, the Matao is led by Darren Sawatzky, the current head coach.</p><br>
<p>The top football division in Guam is the Guam Mens Soccer League. Rovers FC and Guam Shipyard are the leagues most competitive and successful clubs, both have won nine championships in the past years.</p><br>
<h4>Basketball</h4><br>
<p>The Guam national basketball team is traditionally one of the top teams in the Oceania region behind Australia and New Zealand.</p><br>
<p>As of 2015, it is the reigning champion of the Pacific Games Basketball Tournament.</p><br>
<p>Guam is home to various basketball organizations, including the GBA.</p><br>
<h4>Swimming</h4><br>
<p>In the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, Pilar Shimizu competed for Guam and placed 42nd in the breaststroke competition.</p><br>
<h4>Rugby union</h4><br>
<p>Guam is represented in rugby union by the Guam national rugby union team. The team has never qualified for a Rugby World Cup. Guam played their first match in 2005, an 8–8 draw with India. Guam&#39;s biggest win was a 74–0 defeat of Brunei in June 2008.</p><br>
<h4>Mixed martial arts</h4><br>
<p>UFC fighter Jon Tuck, who boasts a professional record of 10 wins and 4 losses, three of those wins while with the UFC, fights out of Guam.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>Guams economy depends primarily on tourism, Department of Defense installations and locally owned businesses. Despite paying no income or excise tax, it receives large transfer payments from the general revenues of the USA federal treasury. Under the provisions of a special law by Congress, it is Guams treasury rather than the USA treasury that receives the federal income taxes paid by local taxpayers (including military and civilian federal employees assigned to Guam).</p><br>
<p>Lying in the western Pacific, Guam is a popular destination for Japanese tourists. Its tourist hub, Tumon, features over 20 large hotels, a Duty Free Shoppers Galleria, Pleasure Island district, indoor aquarium, Sandcastle Las Vegas–styled shows and other shopping and entertainment venues. It is a relatively short flight from Asia or Australia compared to Hawaii, with hotels and seven public golf courses accommodating over a million tourists per year. Although 75% of the tourists are Japanese, Guam receives a sizable number of tourists from South Korea, the USA, the Philippines, and Taiwan. Significant sources of revenue include duty-free designer shopping outlets, and the American-style malls: Micronesia Mall, Guam Premier Outlets, the Agana Shopping Center, and the world&#39;s largest Kmart.</p><br>
<p>The economy had been stable since 2000 due to increased tourism. It is expected to stabilize with the transfer of USA Marine Corps&#39; 3rd Marine Expeditionary Force, currently in Okinawa, Japan, (approximately 8,000 Marines, along with their 10,000 dependents), to Guam between 2010 and 2015. In 2003, Guam had a 14% unemployment rate, and the government suffered a $314 million shortfall.</p><br>
<p>The Compacts of Free Association between the United States, the Federated States of Micronesia, the Republic of the Marshall Islands and the Republic of Palau accorded the former entities of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands a political status of "free association" with the United States. The Compacts give citizens of these island nations generally no restrictions to reside in the United States (also its territories), and many were attracted to Guam due to its proximity, environmental, and cultural familiarity. Over the years, it was claimed by some in Guam that the territory has had to bear the brunt of this agreement in the form of public assistance programs and public education for those from the regions involved, and the federal government should compensate the states and territories affected by this type of migration. Over the years, Congress had appropriated "Compact Impact" aids to Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands and Hawaii, and eventually this appropriation was written into each renewed Compact. Some, however, continue to claim the compensation is not enough or that the distribution of actual compensation received is significantly disproportionate.</p><br>
<p>Guam&#39;s largest single private sector employer, with about 1,400 jobs, was Continental Micronesia, a subsidiary of Continental Airlines; it is now a part of United Airlines, a subsidiary of Chicago-based United Continental Holdings, Inc. the Continental Micronesia annual payroll in Guam was $90 million.</p><br>
<h2>Government and politics</h2><br>
<p>Guam is governed by a popularly elected governor and a unicameral 15-member legislature, whose members are known as senators. Its judiciary is overseen by the Supreme Court of Guam.</p><br>
<p>The District Court of Guam is the court of United States federal jurisdiction in the territory. Guam elects one delegate to the United States House of Representatives, currently Democrat Madeleine Z. Bordallo. The delegate does not have a vote on the final passage of legislation, but is accorded a vote in committee, and the privilege to speak to the House. USA citizens in Guam vote in a straw poll for their choice in the USA Presidential general election, but since Guam has no votes in the Electoral College, the poll has no real effect. However, in sending delegates to the Republican and Democratic national conventions, Guam does have influence in the national presidential race. These delegates are elected by local party conventions.</p><br>
<h3>Political status</h3><br>
<p>In the 1980s and early 1990s, there was a significant movement in favor of this USA territory becoming a commonwealth, which would give it a level of self-government similar to Puerto Rico and the Northern Mariana Islands. However, the federal government rejected the version of a commonwealth that the government of Guam proposed, because its clauses were incompatible with the Territorial Clause (Art. IV, Sec. 3, cl. 2) of the USA Constitution. Other movements advocate USA statehood for Guam, union with the state of Hawaii, or union with the Northern Mariana Islands as a single territory, or independence.</p><br>
<p>In a 1982 plebiscite, voters indicated interest in seeking commonwealth status. The island has been considering another non-binding plebiscite on decolonization since 1998. Governor Eddie Baza Calvo intended to include one during the island&#39;s November 2016 elections but it was delayed again.</p><br>
<p>A Commission on Decolonization was established in 1997 to educate the people of Guam about the various political status options in its relationship with the USA: statehood, free association and independence. The group was dormant for some years. In 2013, the Commission began seeking funding to start a public education campaign. There were few subsequent developments until late 2016. In early December 2016, the Commission scheduled a series of education sessions in various villages about the current status of Guams relationship with the USA and the self-determination options that might be considered. The Commissions current Executive Director is Edward Alvarez and there are ten members. The group is also expected to release position papers on independence and statehood but the contents have not yet been completed.</p><br>
<p>The United Nations is in favor of greater self-determination for Guam and other such territories. The UNs Special Committee on Decolonization has agreed to endorse the Governors education plan. The commission&#39;s May 2016 report states: "With academics from the University of Guam, was working to create and approve educational materials. The Office of the Governor was collaborating closely with the Commission" in developing educational materials for the public.</p><br>
<p>The United States Department of the Interior had approved a $300,000 grant for decolonization education, Edward Alvarez told the United Nations Pacific Regional Seminar in May 2016. "We are hopeful that this might indicate a shift in policy to its Non-Self-Governing Territories such as Guam, where they will be more willing to engage in discussions about our future and offer true support to help push us towards true self-governances and self-determination."</p><br>
<h2>Villages</h2><br>
<p>Guam is divided into nineteen municipalities called villages:</p><br>
<p>Agana Heights</p><br>
<p>Agat</p><br>
<p>Asan‑Maina</p><br>
<p>Barrigada</p><br>
<p>Chalan‑Pago‑Ordot</p><br>
<p>Dededo</p><br>
<p>Hagåtña (capital)</p><br>
<p>Inarajan</p><br>
<p>Mangilao</p><br>
<p>Merizo</p><br>
<p>Mongmong‑Toto‑Maite</p><br>
<p>Piti</p><br>
<p>Santa Rita</p><br>
<p>Sinajana</p><br>
<p>Talofofo</p><br>
<p>Tamuning</p><br>
<p>Umatac</p><br>
<p>Yigo</p><br>
<p>Yona</p><br>
<h2>Military bases</h2><br>
<p>The USA military maintains jurisdiction over its bases, which cover approximately 39,000 acre, or 29% of the island&#39;s total land area:</p><br>
<p>USA Naval Base Guam, USA Navy – Sumay</p><br>
<p>USA Coast Guard Sector Guam, – Sumay</p><br>
<p>Andersen Air Force Base, USA Air Force – Yigo</p><br>
<p>Apra Harbor – Orote peninsula</p><br>
<p>Ordnance Annex, USA Navy – South Central Highlands (formerly known as Naval Magazine)</p><br>
<p>Naval Computer and Telecommunications Station, USA Navy – Barrigada and Finegayan</p><br>
<p>Joint Force Headquarters-Guam, Guam National Guard – Radio Barrigada and Fort Juan Muna</p><br>
<p>In addition to on-shore military installations, Guam, along with the rest of the Mariana Islands, is being prepared to be the westernmost military training range for the USA Guam is currently viewed as a key military hub that will further allow USA military power to be projected via sea and sky.</p><br>
<p>The USA military has proposed building a new aircraft carrier berth on Guam and moving 8,600 Marines, and 9,000 of their dependents, to Guam from Okinawa, Japan. Including the required construction workers, this buildup would increase Guam&#39;s population by 45%. In a February 2010 letter, the United States Environmental Protection Agency sharply criticized these plans because of a water shortfall, sewage problems and the impact on coral reefs. By 2012, these plans had been cut to have only a maximum of 4,800 Marines stationed on the island, two thirds of whom would be there on a rotational basis without their dependents.</p><br>
<p>With the proposed increased military presence stemming from the upcoming preparation efforts and relocation efforts of USA Marines from Okinawa, Japan to Guam slated to begin in 2010 and last for the next several years thereafter, the amount of total land that the military will control or tenant may grow to or surpass 40% of the entire landmass of Guam.</p><br>
<p>In January 2011, the Ike Skelton National Defense Authorization Act for FY2011 indicated that recent significant events will delay the deadline for realigning USA Marine Corps service members and their families from Okinawa to Guam. The transfer may be as late as 2020. In addition, the Defense Authorization Act cut approximately $320 million from the 2011 budget request.</p><br>
<p>Villagers and the military community are interconnected in many ways. Many villagers serve in the military or are retired. Many active duty personnel and Defense Department civilians also live in the villages outside of the military installation areas. The military and village communities have "adoption" programs where Guam&#39;s population and military personnel stationed on Guam perform community service projects.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation and communications</h2><br>
<p>Most of the island has state-of-the-art mobile phone services and high-speed internet widely available through either cable or DSL. Guam was added to the North American Numbering Plan (NANP) in 1997 (country code 671 became NANP area code 671), removing the barrier of high-cost international long-distance calls to the USA mainland.</p><br>
<p>Guam is also a major hub for submarine cables between the Western USA, Hawaii, Australia and Asia. Guam currently serves twelve submarine cables, with most continuing to China.</p><br>
<p>In 1899, the local postage stamps were overprinted "Guam" as was done for the other former Spanish colonies, but this was discontinued shortly thereafter and regular USA postage stamps have been used ever since. Because Guam is also part of the USA Postal System (postal abbreviation: GU, ZIP code range: 96910–96932), mail to Guam from the USA mainland is considered domestic and no additional charges are required. Private shipping companies, such as FedEx, UPS, and DHL, however, have no obligation to do so, and do not regard Guam as domestic.</p><br>
<p>The speed of mail traveling between Guam and the states varies depending on size and time of year. Light, first-class items generally take less than a week to or from the mainland, but larger first-class or Priority items can take a week or two. Fourth-class mail, such as magazines, are transported by sea after reaching Hawaii. Most residents use post office boxes or private mail boxes, although residential delivery is becoming increasingly available. Incoming mail not from the Americas should be addressed to "Guam" instead of "USA" to avoid being routed the long way through the USA mainland and possibly charged a higher rate (especially from Asia).</p><br>
<p>The Commercial Port of Guam is the islands lifeline because most products must be shipped into Guam for consumers. It receives the weekly calls of the Hawaii-based shipping line Matson, Inc. whose container ships connect Guam with Honolulu, Hawaii, Los Angeles, California, Oakland, California and Seattle, Washington. The port is also the regional transhipment hub for over 500,000 customers throughout the Micronesian region. The port is the shipping and receiving point for containers designated for the islands USA Department of Defense installations, Andersen Air Force Base and Commander, Naval Forces Marianas and eventually the Third Marine Expeditionary Force.</p><br>
<p>Guam is served by the Antonio B. Won Pat International Airport, which is a hub for United Airlines. The island is outside the United States customs zone so Guam is responsible for establishing and operating its own customs and quarantine agency and jurisdiction. Therefore, the USA Customs and Border Protection only carries immigration (but not customs) functions. Since Guam is under federal immigration jurisdiction, passengers arriving directly from the United States skip immigration and proceed directly to Guam Customs and Quarantine.</p><br>
<p>However, due to the Guam and CNMI visa waiver program for certain countries, an eligibility pre-clearance check is carried on Guam for flights to the States. For travel from the Northern Mariana Islands to Guam, a pre-flight passport and visa check is performed before boarding the flight to Guam. On flights from Guam to the Northern Mariana Islands, no immigration check is performed. Traveling between Guam and the States through a foreign point, however, does require a passport.</p><br>
<p>Most residents travel within Guam using personally owned vehicles. The local government currently outsources the only public bus system (Guam Regional Transit Authority), and some commercial companies operate buses between tourist-frequented locations.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<h3>Brown tree snake</h3><br>
<p>Believed to be a stowaway on a USA military transport near the end of World War II, the brown tree snake (Boiga irregularis) was accidentally introduced to Guam, which previously had no native species of snake. It nearly eliminated the native bird population. The problem was exacerbated because the snake has no natural predators on the island. The brown tree snake, known locally as the kulebla, is native to northern and eastern coasts of Australia, Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands. It is slightly venomous, but relatively harmless to human beings; it is nocturnal. Although some studies have suggested a high density of these serpents on Guam, residents rarely see them. The United States Department of Agriculture has trained detector dogs to keep the snakes out of the islands cargo flow. The United States Geological Survey also has dogs that can detect snakes in forested environments around the regions islands.</p><br>
<p>Before the introduction of the brown tree snake, Guam was home to several endemic bird species. Among them were the Guam rail (or koko bird in Chamorro) and the Guam flycatcher, both common throughout the island. Today the flycatcher is entirely extinct and the Guam rail is extinct in the wild but bred in captivity by the Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources. The devastation caused by the snake has been significant over the past several decades. As many as twelve bird species are believed to have been driven to extinction. According to many elders, koko birds were common in Guam before World War II.</p><br>
<p>Other bird species threatened by the brown tree snake include the Mariana crow, the Mariana swiftlet, and the Micronesian starling, though populations are present on other islands, including Rota.</p><br>
<p>Guam is said to have many more insects and 40 times more spiders than neighboring islands, because their natural predators birds are severely diminished, and the forests are almost completely silent due to lack of birdsong.</p><br>
<p>Forest on Guam swathed in spider webs.</p><br>
<h3>Coconut rhinoceros beetle</h3><br>
<p>An infestation of the coconut rhinoceros beetle (CRB), Oryctes rhinoceros, was detected on Guam on September 12, 2007. CRB is not known to occur in the United States except in American Samoa. Delimiting surveys performed September 13–25, 2007, indicated that the infestation was limited to Tumon Bay and Faifai Beach, an area of approximately 900 acre. Guam Department of Agriculture (GDA) placed quarantine on all properties within the Tumon area on October 5 and later expanded the quarantine to about 2,500 acre on October 25; approximately 0.5 mi radius in all directions from all known locations of CRB infestation. CRB is native to Southern Asia and distributed throughout Asia and the Western Pacific including Sri Lanka, Upolu, Samoa, American Samoa, Palau, New Britain, West Irian, New Ireland, Pak Island and Manus Island (New Guinea), Fiji, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Mauritius, and Reunion.</p><br>
<h3>Other invasive animal species</h3><br>
<p>From the seventeenth through nineteenth centuries, the Spanish introduced pigs, dogs, chickens, the Philippine deer (Rusa mariannus), black francolins, and carabao (a subspecies of water buffalo), which have cultural significance. Herds of carabao obstruct military base operations and harm native ecosystems. After birth control and adoption efforts were ineffective, the USA military began culling the herds in 2002 leading to organized protests from island residents.</p><br>
<p>Other introduced species include cane toads imported in 1937, the giant African snail (an agricultural pest introduced during World War II by Japanese occupation troops) and more recently frog species which could threaten crops in addition to providing additional food for the brown tree snake population. Reports of loud chirping frogs native to Puerto Rico and known as coquí, that may have arrived from Hawaii, have led to fears that the noise could threaten Guam&#39;s tourism.</p><br>
<p>Guam has no native amphibian species, but now a total of eight amphibian species has been established in Guam. Litoria fallax (native to the eastern coast of Australia) has been present in Guam since 1968, and Rhinella marina (the cane toad) was brought to the island in 1937. The other 6 amphibian species, namely Hylarana guentheri (native to mainland Asia), Microhyla pulchra (native to mainland Asia), Polypedates braueri (endemic to Taiwan), Eleutherodactylus planirostris (native to the Caribbean), Fejervarya cancrivora (the Guam variety being most closely related to F. cancrivora found in Taiwan), and Fejervarya limnocharis (native to Southeast Asia), have been in Guam since 2003. Many species were likely inadvertently introduced via shipping cargo, especially from Taiwan, mainland China, and Southeast Asia.</p><br>
<p>Introduced feral pigs and deer, over-hunting, and habitat loss from human development are also major factors in the decline and loss of Guam&#39;s native plants and animals.</p><br>
<h3>Threats to indigenous plants</h3><br>
<p>Invading animal species are not the only threat to Guams native flora. Tinangaja, a virus affecting coconut palms, was first observed on the island in 1917 when copra production was still a major part of Guams economy. Though coconut plantations no longer exist on the island, the dead and infected trees that have resulted from the epidemic are seen throughout the forests of Guam.</p><br>
<p>During the past century, the dense forests of northern Guam have been largely replaced by thick tangan-tangan brush (Leucaena leucocephala). Much of Guam&#39;s foliage was lost during World War II. In 1947, the USA military is thought to have planted tangan-tangan by seeding the island from the air to prevent erosion. Tangan-tangan was present on the island before 1905.</p><br>
<p>In southern Guam, non-native grass species dominate much of the landscape. Although the colorful and impressive flame tree (Delonix regia) is found throughout the Marianas, the tree on Guam has been largely decimated.</p><br>
<h3>Wildfires</h3><br>
<p>Wildfires plague the forested areas of Guam every dry season despite the island&#39;s humid climate. Most fires are caused by humans with 80% resulting from arson. Poachers often start fires to attract deer to the new growth. Invasive grass species that rely on fire as part of their natural life cycle grow in many regularly burned areas. Grasslands and "barrens" have replaced previously forested areas leading to greater soil erosion. During the rainy season, sediment is carried by the heavy rains into the Fena Lake Reservoir and Ugum River, leading to water quality problems for southern Guam. Eroded silt also destroys the marine life in reefs around the island. Soil stabilization efforts by volunteers and forestry workers (planting trees) have had little success in preserving natural habitats.</p><br>
<h3>Aquatic preserves</h3><br>
<p>Efforts have been made to protect Guam&#39;s coral reef habitats from pollution, eroded silt and overfishing, problems that have led to decreased fish populations. (Since Guam is a significant vacation spot for scuba divers, this is important.) In recent years, the Department of Agriculture, Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources has established several new marine preserves where fish populations are monitored by biologists. Before adopting USA Environmental Protection Agency standards, portions of Tumon Bay were dredged by the hotel chains to provide a better experience for hotel guests. Tumon Bay has since been made into a preserve. A federal Guam National Wildlife Refuge in northern Guam protects the decimated sea turtle population in addition to a small colony of Mariana fruit bats.</p><br>
<p>Harvest of sea turtle eggs was a common occurrence on Guam before World War II. The green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) was harvested legally on Guam before August 1978, when it was listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act. The hawksbill sea turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) has been on the endangered list since 1970. In an effort to ensure protection of sea turtles on Guam, routine sightings are counted during aerial surveys and nest sites are recorded and monitored for hatchlings.</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<h3>Colleges and universities</h3><br>
<p>The University of Guam (UOG) and Guam Community College, both fully accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges, offer courses in higher education. UOG is a member of the exclusive group of only 76 land-grant institutions in the entire United States. Pacific Islands University is a small Christian liberal arts institution nationally accredited by the Transnational Association of Christian Colleges and Schools. They offer courses at both the undergraduate and graduate levels.</p><br>
<h3>Primary and secondary schools</h3><br>
<p>The Guam Department of Education serves the entire island of Guam. In 2000, 32,000 students attended Guams public schools. Guam Public Schools have struggled with problems such as high dropout rates and poor test scores. Guams educational system has always faced unique challenges as a small community located 6,000 mi from the USA mainland with a very diverse student body including many students who come from backgrounds without traditional American education. An economic downturn in Guam since the mid-1990s has compounded the problems in schools.</p><br>
<p>Before September 1997, the USA Department of Defense partnered with Guam Board of Education. In September 1997, the DoDEA opened its own schools for children of military personnel. DoDEA schools, which also serve children of some federal civilian employees, had an attendance of 2,500 in 2000. DoDEA Guam operates three elementary/middle schools and one high school.</p><br>
<h3>Public libraries</h3><br>
<p>Guam Public Library System operates the Nieves M. Flores Memorial Library in Hagåtña and five branch libraries.</p><br>
<h2>Health care</h2><br>
<p>The Government of Guam maintains the island&#39;s main health care facility, Guam Memorial Hospital, in Tamuning. USA board certified doctors and dentists practice in all specialties. In addition, the USA Naval Hospital in Agana Heights serves active-duty members and dependents of the military community. There is one subscriber-based air ambulance located on the island, CareJet, which provides emergency patient transportation across Guam and surrounding islands. A private hospital, the Guam Regional Medical City opened its doors in early 2016.</p><br>
<h2>Film-making</h2><br>
<p>Over the years, a number of films have been shot on Guam, including Shiro&#39;s Head (directed by the Muna brothers) and the government-funded Max Havoc: Curse of the Dragon (2004). Although set on Guam, No Man Is an Island (1962) was not shot there, but in the Republic of the Philippines.</p><br>
<p>Greenland is located between the Arctic Ocean and the North Atlantic Ocean, northeast of Canada and northwest of Iceland. The territory comprises the island of Greenland–the largest island in the world–and more than a hundred other smaller islands . As an island, Greenland has no land boundaries and 44,087 km of coastline. A sparse population is confined to small settlements along certain sectors of the coast. Greenland possesses the world&#39;s second largest ice sheet.</p><br>
<p>Greenland sits atop the Greenland plate, a subplate of the North American plate. The Greenland craton is made up of some of the oldest rocks on the face of the earth. The Isua greenstone belt in southwestern Greenland contains the oldest known rocks on Earth, dated at 3.7–3.8 billion years old.</p><br>
<p>The vegetation is generally sparse, with the only patch of forested land being found in Nanortalik Municipality in the extreme south near Cape Farewell.</p><br>
<p>The climate is arctic to subarctic, with cool summers and cold winters. The terrain is mostly a flat but gradually sloping icecap that covers all land except for a narrow, mountainous, barren, rocky coast. The lowest elevation is sea level and the highest elevation is the summit of Gunnbjørn Fjeld, the highest point in the Arctic at 3,694 m. The northernmost point of the Island of Greenland is Cape Morris Jesup, discovered by Admiral Robert Peary in 1909. Natural resources include zinc, lead, iron ore, coal, molybdenum, gold, platinum, uranium, hydropower and fish.</p><br>
<h2>Area</h2><br>
<p>total:</p><br>
<p>2,166,086 km²</p><br>
<p>land:</p><br>
<p>2,166,086 km² (410,449 km² ice-free, 1,755,637 km² ice-covered)</p><br>
<p>Maritime claims:</p><br>
<p>territorial sea:</p><br>
<p>3 nmi</p><br>
<p>exclusive fishing zone:</p><br>
<p>200 nmi</p><br>
<h2>Land use</h2><br>
<p>arable land:</p><br>
<p>approximately 6%; some land is used to grow silage.</p><br>
<p>permanent crops:</p><br>
<p>approximately 0%</p><br>
<p>other:</p><br>
<p>100% (2012 est.)</p><br>
<p>Total population 56,000 inhabitants of whom ca. 15,000 live in the capital Nuuk.</p><br>
<h2>Natural hazards</h2><br>
<p>Continuous ice sheet covers 84% of the country; the rest is permafrost.</p><br>
<h2>Environment – current issues</h2><br>
<p>Protection of the Arctic environment, climate change, pollution of the food chain, excessive hunting of endangered species (walrus, polar bears, narwhal, beluga whale and several sea birds).</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The Greenland ice sheet is 3 km thick and broad enough to blanket an area the size of Mexico. The ice is so massive that its weight presses the bedrock of Greenland below sea level and is so all-concealing that not until recently did scientists discover Greenland&#39;s Grand Canyon or the possibility that Greenland might actually be three islands.</p><br>
<p>If the ice melted, the interior bedrock below sea level would be covered by water. It is not clear whether this water would be at sea level or a lake above sea level. If it would be at sea level it could connect to the sea at Ilulissat Icefjord, in Baffin Bay and near Nordostrundingen, creating three large islands. But it is most likely that it would be a lake with one drain.</p><br>
<p>It is thought that before the Ice Age Greenland had mountainous edges, and a lowland (and probably very dry) center which drained to the sea by one big river flowing out westwards past where Disko Island is now.</p><br>
<p>There is concern about sea level rise caused by ice loss (melt and glaciers falling into the sea) on Greenland. Between 1997 and 2003 ice loss was 68 -, compared to about 60 km3/a for 1993/4-1998/9. Half of the increase was from higher summer melting, with the rest caused by velocities of some glaciers exceeding those needed to balance upstream snow accumulation (Krabill et al., L24402, GRL 2004). A complete loss of ice on Greenland would cause a sea level rise of as much as 6.40 m.</p><br>
<p>Researchers at NASA&#39;s Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the University of Kansas reported in February 2006 that the glaciers are melting twice as fast as they were five years ago. By 2005, Greenland was beginning to lose more ice volume than anyone expected – an annual loss of up to 52 cumi per year, according to more recent satellite gravity measurements released by JPL. The increased ice loss may be partially offset by increased snow accumulation due to increased precipitation.</p><br>
<p>Between 1991 and 2006, monitoring of the weather at one location (Swiss Camp) found that the average winter temperature had risen almost 10 &deg;F.</p><br>
<p>Recently, Greenland&#39;s three largest outlet glaciers have started moving faster, satellite data show. These are the Jakobshavn Isbræ at Ilulissat on the western edge of Greenland, and the Kangerdlugssuaq and Helheim glaciers on the eastern edge of Greenland. The two latter accelerated greatly during the years 2004–2005, but returned to pre-2004 velocities in 2006. The accelerating ice flow has been accompanied by a dramatic increase in seismic activity. In March 2006, researchers at Harvard University and the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory at Columbia University reported that the glaciers now generate swarms of earthquakes up to magnitude 5.0.</p><br>
<p>The retreat of Greenland&#39;s ice is revealing islands that were thought to be part of the mainland. In September 2005 Dennis Schmitt discovered an island 400 mi north of the Arctic Circle in eastern Greenland which he named Uunartoq Qeqertaq, Inuit for "warming island".</p><br>
<h2>Future Projections</h2><br>
<p>In the Arctic, temperatures are rising faster than anywhere else in the world. Greenland is losing 200 billion tonnes of ice per year. Research suggests that this could increase the sea levels to rise by 30 centimeters by the end of the century. These projections have the possibility of changing as satellite data only traces back to 40 years ago. This means that researchers must view old photographs of glaciers and compare them to ones taken today to determine the future of Greenland&#39;s ice.</p><br>
<h2>Extreme points</h2><br>
<p>This is a list of the extreme points of Greenland, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.</p><br>
<h3>Territory of Greenland</h3><br>
<p>Northernmost Point — Kaffeklubben Island (83°40&#39;N) – the northernmost permanent land in the world. There are also some shifting gravel bars that lie north of Kaffeklubben, the most famous being Oodaaq.</p><br>
<p>Southernmost point — unnamed islet 2.3 km south of Cape Farewell, Egger Island (59°44&#39;N)</p><br>
<p>Westernmost point — Nordvestø, Carey Islands (73°10&#39;W)</p><br>
<p>Easternmost point — Nordostrundingen, Greenland (11°19&#39;W)</p><br>
<p>Highest point — Gunnbjørn Fjeld, 3,694 m.</p><br>
<h3>Island of Greenland</h3><br>
<p>Northernmost point — Cape Morris Jesup (83°39&#39;N)</p><br>
<p>Southernmost point — Peninsula near Nanortalik (60°08′31″N)</p><br>
<p>Westernmost point — Cape Alexander (73°08&#39;W)</p><br>
<p>Easternmost point — Nordostrundingen, Greenland (11°19&#39;W)</p><br>
<p>Highest point — Gunnbjørn Fjeld, 3,694 m.</p><br>
<h2>Towns</h2><br>
<p>Greenland has 18 towns – settlements with more than 500 inhabitants. Nuuk is the largest town – and the capital – with roughly one third of the country&#39;s urban population. Sisimiut with approximately 5,500 inhabitants is the second largest town, while Ilulissat is number three with ca. 5,000 inhabitants.</p><br>
<p>Aasiaat</p><br>
<p>Ilulissat</p><br>
<p>Ittoqqortoormiit</p><br>
<p>Kangaatsiaq</p><br>
<p>Maniitsoq</p><br>
<p>Nanortalik</p><br>
<p>Narsaq</p><br>
<p>Narsarsuaq</p><br>
<p>Nuuk</p><br>
<p>Paamiut</p><br>
<p>Qaanaaq</p><br>
<p>Qaqortoq</p><br>
<p>Qasigiannguit</p><br>
<p>Qeqertarsuaq</p><br>
<p>Sisimiut</p><br>
<p>Tasiilaq</p><br>
<p>Upernavik</p><br>
<p>Uummannaq</p><br>
<h2>History of Exploration</h2><br>
<p>See Cartographic expeditions to Greenland</p><br>
<p>The Hawar Islands  are an archipelago of desert islands owned by Bahrain, situated off the west coast of Qatar in the Gulf of Bahrain of the Persian Gulf.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The islands used to be one of the settlements of the Bahraini branch of the Dawasir who settled there in the early 19th century. The islands were first surveyed in 1820, when they were called the Warden’s Islands, and two villages were recorded. Fresh water has always been scarce; historically it was obtained by surface collection and even today, with the desalinisation plant, additional supplies have to be brought in.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Despite their proximity to Qatar (they are only about 1 nmi from the Qatari mainland whilst being about 10 nmi from the main islands of Bahrain), most of the islands belong to Bahrain, having been a part of a dispute between Bahrain and Qatar which was resolved in 2001. The islands were formerly coincident with municipality or Minţaqat Juzur Ḩawār (مِنْطَقَة جُزُر حَوَار) and are now administered as part of the Southern Governorate of Bahrain. The land area of the islands is approximately 52 km.</p><br>
<p>Although there are 36 islands in the group, many of the smaller islands are little more than sand or shingle accumulations on areas of exposed bedrock molded by the ongoing processes of sedimentation and accretion.</p><br>
<p>The application named 8 major islands (see table hereafter), which conforms to the description of the islands when first surveyed as consisting of 8 or 9 islands. It has often been described as an archipelago of 16 islands. Janan island, to the south of Hawar island, is not legally considered to be a part of the group and is owned by Qatar.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>The islands are home to many bird species, notably Socotra cormorants. There are small herds of Arabian oryx and sand gazelle on Hawar island, and the seas around support a large population of dugong.</p><br>
<h3>Conservation</h3><br>
<p>The islands were listed as a Ramsar site in 1997. In 2002, the Bahraini government applied to have the islands recognised as a World Heritage Site due to their unique environment and habitat for endangered species; the application was ultimately unsuccessful.</p><br>
<h2>Administration</h2><br>
<p>The islands were formerly coincident with municipality or Minţaqat Juzur Ḩawār (مِنْطَقَة جُزُر حَوَار) and are now administered as part of the Southern Governorate of Bahrain.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>In 2014, a Best Western hotel with 140 rooms replaced a much smaller Hawar Islands Resort. However, the resort closed in mid-2016.</p><br>
<h2>List of islands</h2><br>
<h3>Hawar archipelago</h3><br>
<p>By far the largest island is Hawar, which accounts for more than 41 km of the 54.5 km land area. Following in size are Suwād al Janūbīyah, Suwād ash Shamālīyah, Rubud Al Sharqiyah, Rubud Al Gharbiyah, and Muhazwarah (Umm Hazwarah).</p><br>
<p>The following were not considered as part of the Hawar islands in the International Court of Justice (ICJ) judgment, being located between Hawar and the Bahrain Islands and not disputed by Qatar, but have been included in the Hawar archipelago by the Bahrain government as part of the 2002 World Heritage Site application.</p><br>
<h3>Janan island</h3><br>
<p>Janan island, a small island south of Hawar island, was also considered in the 2001 judgment. Based on a previous agreement when both Qatar and Bahrain were under British protection, it was judged to be separate from the Hawar islands and so considered by the court separately. It was awarded to Qatar.</p><br>
<p>Hradčany , the Castle District, is the district of the city of Prague, Czech Republic surrounding Prague Castle.</p><br>
<p>The castle is said to be the biggest castle in the world at about 570 m in length and an average of about 130 m wide. Its history stretches back to the 9th century. St Vitus Cathedral is located in the castle area.</p><br>
<p>Most of the district consists of noble historical palaces. There are many other attractions for visitors: romantic nooks, peaceful places and beautiful lookouts.</p><br>
<p>Hradčany was an independent borough until 1784, when the four independent boroughs that had formerly constituted Prague were proclaimed a single city. The other three were Malá Strana (links=no, Lesser Quarter), Staré Město (links=no, Old Town) and Nové Město (links=no, New Town).</p><br>
<p>Hayling Island is an island off the south coast of England, in the borough of Havant in the county of Hampshire, near Portsmouth.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>An Iron Age shrine in the north of Hayling Island was later developed into a Roman temple in the 1st century BC and was first recorded in Richard Scott&#39;s Topographical and Historical Account of Hayling Island, published in 1826. The site was excavated between 1897 and 1907 and again from 1976 to 1978. Remains are no longer visible and are buried beneath cultivated farmland. The first coin credited to Commius that was found in an excavated context was found at the temple. This Commius was probably the son of the Commius mentioned by Julius Caesar in his writings although its possible the coin was issued by the original Commius.</p><br>
<p>Salt production was an industry on the island from the 11th century (the Domesday Book records a saltpan on the island for this purpose) until the late 19th century.</p><br>
<p>Construction of Northwode Chapel by the monks of Jumièges, Normandy, began in about 1140; this became the present St Peters Church and is now the oldest surviving church on the island. It has been claimed that St Peters three bells, cast in about 1350, have one of the oldest peals in England. St Mary&#39;s Church is a standard design of the churches of its era, but upon close examination the walls have been constructed from a mortar of local shells and beach pebbles. The ancient yew tree in the churchyard is believed to be the oldest yew in the country, with a girth of some 9 m. Although estimates as to its age vary, they range from over a thousand to nearly two thousand years old.</p><br>
<p>The grave of Princess Yourievsky (1878–1959) who was a member of the ill-fated Russian Royal family and who lived in North Hayling for many years, may be found in St. Peters churchyard; and the grave of Scotsman George Glas Sandeman, nephew of the founder of Sandeman Port and second head of that company, is prominently featured in the north-east part of St. Marys graveyard.</p><br>
<p>The island was the location of a mock invasion during the military Exercise Fabius in May 1944, rehearsing the preparations for D-Day.</p><br>
<p>In 1982, British courts recognised prior art by Peter Chilvers, who as a young boy on Hayling Island assembled his first board combined with a sail, in 1958. It incorporated all the elements of the modern windsurfer. The courts found that later innovations were "merely an obvious extension" and upheld the defendants claim based on film footage. This court case set a significant precedent for patent law in the United Kingdom, in terms of Inventive step and non-obviousness. The case, Chilvers, Hayling, and a replica of Chilvers original board were featured on an episode of the BBC&#39;s The One Show in 2009.</p><br>
<p>On 20 October 2013, at least one hundred properties on the island were damaged when it was hit by a tornado. No injuries were reported.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Hayling Island is a true island, completely surrounded by sea. Looking at its north to south orientation, it is shaped like an inverted T, about 6.5 km long and 6.5 km wide. A road bridge connects its northern end to the mainland of England at Langstone. The Hayling Ferry is a small pedestrian ferry connecting to the Eastney area of the city of Portsmouth on the neighbouring Portsea Island. To the west is Langstone Harbour and to the east is Chichester Harbour.</p><br>
<p>The natural beach at Hayling was predominantly sandy, but in recent years it has been mechanically topped with shingle dredged from the bed of the Solent in an effort to reduce beach erosion and reduce the potential to flood low-lying land. At low tide, the East Winner sandbank is visible, extending a mile out to sea. The coastline in this area has substantially changed since Roman times: it is believed much land has been lost from the coasts of Hayling and Selsey by erosion and subsequent flooding.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>As with the rest of the British Isles and Southern England, Hayling Island experiences a maritime climate with cool summers and mild winters. Temperatures have never fallen into double figures below freezing, illustrating the relative warmth of the island – comparable to the far southwest of England and its neighbour, the Isle of Wight. Temperature extremes between 1960 and 2010 have ranged from -9.4 &deg;C during January 1963, up to 32.1 &deg;C during June 1976.</p><br>
<h2>Sport and leisure</h2><br>
<p>Hayling Island has a non-League football club, Hayling United F.C., which plays at Hayling Park.</p><br>
<p>Although largely residential, Hayling is also a holiday, windsurfing and sailing centre, the site where windsurfing was invented.</p><br>
<p>In summer 2010, the Hayling Island Sailing Club hosted the 2010 World Laser Standard Senior and Junior Championships (27 August-5 September). The Senior championship was won by Australian Tom Slingsby, whilst Dane Thorbjoern Schierup won the Junior competition. Today it is a home to many different types of sailing, including a growing fleet.</p><br>
<p>As a consequence of the island&#39;s popularity for water activities, there are two lifeboat services: Hayling Island Lifeboat Station, run by the RNLI and Hayling Island Rescue Service, an independent service run by retired RNLI helmsman, Frank Dunster.</p><br>
<p>The island hosts one of the few active Real Tennis courts in the UK. Founded in 1911, Seacourt Tennis club is one of only a handful in the UK where it is possible to play every recognised racquet sport. The racquets court itself was opened by Sir Colin Cowdrey.</p><br>
<p>Seacourt Tennis Club also hosts a weekly fencing club featuring all ages, levels and weapons.</p><br>
<p>Hayling Golf Club has been voted in the top 100 golf courses in the UK. A traditional links course, although relatively short by modern standards, the strong prevailing south-westerly winds, fast greens, gorse bushes and traditional deep links bunkers make this a stern test for any golfer.</p><br>
<p>Funland, an amusement park situated at Beachlands, is open year-round, as is the East Hayling Light Railway which runs from the funfair to Eastoke corner.</p><br>
<p>The 5 mi Hayling Billy Trail is a former light rail right-of-way which has been converted to one of many footpaths on the island. The Ordnance Survey Explorer 120 map covers the area and the local tourist information office supplies leaflets of local interest walks.</p><br>
<p>The Station Theatre hosts a variety of plays staged by the Hayling Island Amateur Dramatics Society, Hayling Musical Society, musical events and films throughout the year.</p><br>
<p>The island has several churches of different denominations including 3 Anglican churches; St Peters at Northney, St Marys at Gable Head and the more recently built St Andrew&#39;s in South Hayling.</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>Until March 2015, Hayling Ferry linked Portsmouth and Hayling Island. The ferry was busy in summer in good weather, bringing tourists and cyclists to Hayling. In winter, there was a significant reduction of use. The ferry service to and from Portsea Island was subsidised by the local authorities, leaving it under constant threat of closure due to limited resources. The ferry service ceased when the company running the ferry went into administration in March 2015. It was reopened in August 2016 by Baker Trayte Marine Ltd.</p><br>
<p>During the ferry&#39;s closure, the only public connection between Hayling Island and the mainland was the single carriageway road linking Northney to Langstone, Havant. In summer in particular this road can become very congested rendering the journey between the bridge and South Hayling (the most populated area) anything from 30 minutes to an hour. A proposed Millennium project to create a new shared pedestrian and cycle bridge was unsuccessful.</p><br>
<p>A railway to the island was active in the 19th and 20th centuries. It opened on 17 July 1867, co-inciding with the local races. Terrier steam locomotives pulled carriages along the 5 mi Hayling Billy Line from Havant Station on the mainland to a station which was located at the northern end of Staunton Avenue, passing through Langstone where there was a Halt. The railway was popular with tourists throughout the summer, though it saw little service in winter, and at peak times ran up to 24 services per day. Despite its popularity, the line was marked for closure in the Beeching Report due to the prohibitive cost of replacing Langstone Bridge that connected the island to the mainland, estimated at up to £400,000 to repair. Services ended on 3 November 1963, and the bridge was demolished in 1966. The only remaining railway building, a goods shed, has now been converted into a theatre which is run by HIADS.</p><br>
<p>A tourist attraction — the East Hayling Light Railway — is a gauge railway that runs for just over 1 mi from Beachlands Station to Eastoke Corner with aspirations to extend the route to Ferry Point within the next few years.</p><br>
<p>The nearest railway station to Hayling Island is Havant, just onto the mainland off Hayling Island. Alternatively, Portsmouth and Southsea is another railway station, used for connections to Bristol (Temple Meads) and Cardiff.</p><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Stephanie Lawrence, "a musical actress of rare glamour", dancer and star of West End Musicals such as Evita and Starlight Express lived during her childhood on Hayling Island, where her parents ran Broadview House School on Beach Road.</p><br>
<p>Gary Mehigan, British-born chef and judge on Masterchef Australia, was born and raised on Hayling Island.</p><br>
<p>Herbert Arnould Olivier, a portrait and landscape painter, and uncle of Laurence Olivier, died on Hayling Island in 1952.</p><br>
<p>William Padwick 1791-1861, Notably purchased the manor and large estates from Duke of Norkfolk inheriting title and rights of Lord of the Manor. Considerable involvement in the developing transport links to the island.</p><br>
<p>Nevil Shute (Nevil Shute Norway), the Ealing-born aeronautical engineer and novelist, lived at Pond Head on Hayling Island during World War II. His novels include A Town Like Alice and On the Beach.</p><br>
<p>William Thomas Stead, notable political and social campaigner and journalist, had a home on Hayling Island - Hollybush House. He died with the sinking of the Titanic.</p><br>
<p>Princess Catherine Yurievskaya, the youngest daughter of Alexander II of Russia, lived on Hayling Island for many years and was buried at St Peter&#39;s church in 1959.</p><br>
<h2>Hayling oysterbeds</h2><br>
<p>Oysters have been fished on the Hayling oysterbeds, at the northwest corner of the island, as long ago as Roman times, documented in town records since 1615. The oysters were actively farmed between as early as 1819 until the 1970s. Oysters became a delicacy that was exported throughout the country under the classification of “Emsworth Oysters”. Large complexes consisting of several pens separated by a series of bund walls and sluice gates were built to contain the oysters at varying stages of growth. Although large sections of the walls have since collapsed into the harbour, much of shape and scale of the beds can still be seen today.</p><br>
<p>In 1996, the oyster beds on the north west coast of Hayling Island were restored by the Havant Borough Council, creating a wildlife haven which has become an important seabird breeding site. The Design Council awarded this project Millennium Product status for the renovation.</p><br>
<h2>Paris To Hayling Charity Cycle Ride</h2><br>
<p>The island is the home of the Hayling Charity Cycle Ride. This event, run entirely by local unpaid volunteers, was started in 1986 by local cyclist Peter McQuade and has been run every year since. Up to 2014, over £1,400,000 had been collected for more than 500 good causes. Entrants have come from 15 different countries on five continents. After two years going to Holland, the event returned in 2014 to its original destination: Paris.</p><br>
<h2>Population</h2><br>
<p>In the mid- to late twentieth century, Hayling Islands population was known to double during the summer months, due to a large influx of holiday makers and the associated tourism employees to accommodate. As domestic holidays have declined and Haylings prominence as a traditional English seaside resort have followed in parallel, the population only swells by approximately 20%–25% (English Tourist Board estimate, 2001).</p><br>
<h2>List of settlements</h2><br>
<p>Mengham</p><br>
<p>Northney</p><br>
<p>Eastoke</p><br>
<p>West Town</p><br>
<p>Sinah</p><br>
<p>Sandy Point</p><br>
<p>South Hayling</p><br>
<p>Gable Head</p><br>
<p>Ferry Point</p><br>
<p>Mill Rythe</p><br>
<p>Tournerbury</p><br>
<p>Stoke</p><br>
<h2>Places of interest</h2><br>
<p>East Hayling Light Railway</p><br>
<p>Funland</p><br>
<p>Ham Field</p><br>
<p>Hayling Billy Trail</p><br>
<p>Hayling Island Sailing Club, Sandy Point (AKA Black Point)</p><br>
<p>Northney Marina</p><br>
<p>Seacourt Tennis Club</p><br>
<p>Sparkes Marina</p><br>
<p>Station Theatre</p><br>
<p>St. Mary&#39;s Church, Gable Head</p><br>
<p>St. Peter&#39;s Church, Northney</p><br>
<p>The Hayling Ferry (Ferry reopened August 2016 after a year out of service)</p><br>
<p>The Kench, near Ferry Point</p><br>
<p>The RNLI Lifeboat station at Sandy Point</p><br>
<p>The Hebrides  comprise a widespread and diverse archipelago off the west coast of mainland Scotland. There are two main groups: the Inner and Outer Hebrides. These islands have a long history of occupation dating back to the Mesolithic, and the culture of the residents has been affected by the successive influences of Celtic, Norse, and English-speaking peoples. This diversity is reflected in the names given to the islands, which are derived from the languages that have been spoken there in historic and perhaps prehistoric times.</p><br>
<p>The Hebrides are the source of much of Scottish Gaelic literature and Gaelic music. Today the economy of the islands is dependent on crofting, fishing, tourism, the oil industry, and renewable energy. The Hebrides have lower biodiversity than mainland Britain, but there is a significant presence of seals and seabirds.</p><br>
<h2>Geology, geography and climate</h2><br>
<p>The Hebrides have a diverse geology ranging in age from Precambrian strata that are amongst the oldest rocks in Europe to Paleogene igneous intrusions.</p><br>
<p>The Hebrides can be divided into two main groups, separated from one another by the Minch to the north and the Sea of the Hebrides to the south. The Inner Hebrides lie closer to mainland Scotland and include Islay, Jura, Skye, Mull, Raasay, Staffa and the Small Isles. There are 36 inhabited islands in this group. The Outer Hebrides are a chain of more than 100 islands and small skerries located about 70 km west of mainland Scotland. There are 15 inhabited islands in this archipelago. The main islands include Barra, Benbecula, Berneray, Harris, Lewis, North Uist, South Uist, and St Kilda. In total, the islands have an area of approximately 7,200 km&sup2; and a population of 44,759.</p><br>
<p>A complication is that there are various descriptions of the scope of the Hebrides. The Collins Encyclopedia of Scotland describes the Inner Hebrides as lying "east of the Minch", which would include any and all offshore islands. There are various islands that lie in the sea lochs such as Eilean Bàn and Eilean Donan that might not ordinarily be described as "Hebridean", but no formal definitions exist.</p><br>
<p>In the past, the Outer Hebrides were often referred to as the Long Isle (An t-Eilean Fada). Today, they are also known as the Western Isles, although this phrase can also be used to refer to the Hebrides in general.</p><br>
<p>The Hebrides have a cool temperate climate that is remarkably mild and steady for such a northerly latitude, due to the influence of the Gulf Stream. In the Outer Hebrides the average temperature for the year is 6 °C (44 °F) in January and 14 °C (57 °F) in summer. The average annual rainfall in Lewis is 1,100 mm and sunshine hours range from 1,100 – 1,200 per annum. The summer days are relatively long, and May to August is the driest period.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Prehistory</h3><br>
<p>The Hebrides were settled during the Mesolithic era around 6500 BC or earlier, after the climatic conditions improved enough to sustain human settlement. Occupation at a site on Rùm is dated to 8590 ±95 uncorrected radiocarbon years BP, which is amongst the oldest evidence of occupation in Scotland. There are many examples of structures from the Neolithic period, the finest example being the standing stones at Callanish, dating to the 3rd millennium BC. Cladh Hallan, a Bronze Age settlement on South Uist is the only site in the UK where prehistoric mummies have been found.</p><br>
<h3>Celtic era</h3><br>
<p>In 55 BC, the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus wrote that there was an island called Hyperborea (which means "beyond the North Wind"), where a round temple stood from which the moon appeared only a little distance above the earth every 19 years. This may have been a reference to the stone circle at Callanish.</p><br>
<p>A traveller called Demetrius of Tarsus related to Plutarch the tale of an expedition to the west coast of Scotland in or shortly before AD 83. He stated it was a gloomy journey amongst uninhabited islands, but he had visited one which was the retreat of holy men. He mentioned neither the druids nor the name of the island.</p><br>
<p>The first written records of native life begin in the 6th century AD, when the founding of the kingdom of Dál Riata took place. This encompassed roughly what is now Argyll and Bute and Lochaber in Scotland and County Antrim in Ireland. The figure of Columba looms large in any history of Dál Riata, and his founding of a monastery on Iona ensured that the kingdom would be of great importance in the spread of Christianity in northern Britain. However, Iona was far from unique. Lismore in the territory of the Cenél Loairn, was sufficiently important for the death of its abbots to be recorded with some frequency and many smaller sites, such as on Eigg, Hinba, and Tiree, are known from the annals.</p><br>
<p>North of Dál Riata, the Inner and Outer Hebrides were nominally under Pictish control, although the historical record is sparse. Hunter (2000) states that in relation to King Bridei I of the Picts in the sixth century: "As for Shetland, Orkney, Skye and the Western Isles, their inhabitants, most of whom appear to have been Pictish in culture and speech at this time, are likely to have regarded Bridei as a fairly distant presence.”</p><br>
<h3>Norwegian control</h3><br>
<p>Viking raids began on Scottish shores towards the end of the 8th century and the Hebrides came under Norse control and settlement during the ensuing decades, especially following the success of Harald Fairhair at the Battle of Hafrsfjord in 872. In the Western Isles Ketill Flatnose may have been the dominant figure of the mid 9th century, by which time he had amassed a substantial island realm and made a variety of alliances with other Norse leaders. These princelings nominally owed allegiance to the Norwegian crown, although in practice the latter&#39;s control was fairly limited. Norse control of the Hebrides was formalised in 1098 when Edgar of Scotland formally signed the islands over to Magnus III of Norway. The Scottish acceptance of Magnus III as King of the Isles came after the Norwegian king had conquered Orkney, the Hebrides and the Isle of Man in a swift campaign earlier the same year, directed against the local Norwegian leaders of the various island petty kingdoms. By capturing the islands Magnus imposed a more direct royal control, although at a price. His skald Bjorn Cripplehand recorded that in Lewis "fire played high in the heaven" as "flame spouted from the houses" and that in the Uists "the king dyed his sword red in blood".</p><br>
<p>The Hebrides were now part of the Kingdom of the Isles, whose rulers were themselves vassals of the Kings of Norway. This situation lasted until the partitioning of the Western Isles in 1156, at which time the Outer Hebrides remained under Norwegian control while the Inner Hebrides broke out under Somerled, the Norse-Gael kinsman of the Manx royal house.</p><br>
<p>Following the ill-fated 1263 expedition of Haakon IV of Norway, the Outer Hebrides and the Isle of Man were yielded to the Kingdom of Scotland as a result of the 1266 Treaty of Perth. Although their contribution to the islands can still be found in personal and place names, the archaeological record of the Norse period is very limited. The best known find is the Lewis chessmen, which date from the mid 12th century.</p><br>
<h3>Scottish control</h3><br>
<p>As the Norse era drew to a close, the Norse-speaking princes were gradually replaced by Gaelic-speaking clan chiefs including the MacLeods of Lewis and Harris, Clan Donald and MacNeil of Barra. This transition did little to relieve the islands of internecine strife although by the early 14th century the MacDonald Lords of the Isles, based on Islay, were in theory these chiefs&#39; feudal superiors and managed to exert some control.</p><br>
<p>The Lords of the Isles ruled the Inner Hebrides as well as part of the Western Highlands as subjects of the King of Scots until John MacDonald, fourth Lord of the Isles, squandered the familys powerful position. A rebellion by his nephew, Alexander of Lochalsh provoked an exasperated James IV to forfeit the familys lands in 1493.</p><br>
<p>In 1598, King James VI authorised some "Gentleman Adventurers" from Fife to civilise the "most barbarous Isle of Lewis". Initially successful, the colonists were driven out by local forces commanded by Murdoch and Neil MacLeod, who based their forces on Bearasaigh in Loch Ròg. The colonists tried again in 1605 with the same result, but a third attempt in 1607 was more successful and in due course Stornoway became a Burgh of Barony.</p><br>
<h3>Early British era</h3><br>
<p>With the implementation of the Treaty of Union in 1707, the Hebrides became part of the new Kingdom of Great Britain, but the clans loyalties to a distant monarch were not strong. A considerable number of islesmen "came out" in support of the Jacobite Earl of Mar in the "15" and again in the 1745 rising including Macleod of Dunvegan and MacLea of Lismore. The aftermath of the decisive Battle of Culloden, which effectively ended Jacobite hopes of a Stuart restoration, was widely felt. The British governments strategy was to estrange the clan chiefs from their kinsmen and turn their descendants into English-speaking landlords whose main concern was the revenues their estates brought rather than the welfare of those who lived on them. This may have brought peace to the islands, but in the following century it came at a terrible price. In the wake of the rebellion, the clan system was broken up and islands of the Hebrides became a series of landed estates.</p><br>
<p>The early 19th century was a time of improvement and population growth. Roads and quays were built; the slate industry became a significant employer on Easdale and surrounding islands; and the construction of the Crinan and Caledonian canals and other engineering works such as Telfords "Bridge across the Atlantic" improved transport and access. However, in the mid-19th century, the inhabitants of many parts of the Hebrides were devastated by the clearances, which destroyed communities throughout the Highlands and Islands as the human populations were evicted and replaced with sheep farms. The position was exacerbated by the failure of the islands kelp industry that thrived from the 18th century until the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 and large scale emigration became endemic.</p><br>
<p>As Iain mac Fhearchair, a Gaelic poet from South Uist, wrote for his countrymen who were obliged to leave the Hebrides in the late 18th century, emigration was the only alternative to "sinking into slavery" as the Gaels had been unfairly dispossessed by rapacious landlords. In the 1880s, the "Battle of the Braes" involved a demonstration against unfair land regulation and eviction, stimulating the calling of the Napier Commission. Disturbances continued until the passing of the 1886 Crofters&#39; Act.</p><br>
<h2>Modern economy</h2><br>
<p>For those who remained, new economic opportunities emerged through the export of cattle, commercial fishing and tourism. Nonetheless emigration and military service became the choice of many and the archipelago&#39;s populations continued to dwindle throughout the late 19th century and for much of the 20th century. Lengthy periods of continuous occupation notwithstanding, many of the smaller islands were abandoned.</p><br>
<p>There were, however, continuing gradual economic improvements, among the most visible of which was the replacement of the traditional thatched blackhouse with accommodation of a more modern design and with the assistance of Highlands and Islands Enterprise many of the islands&#39; populations have begun to increase after decades of decline. The discovery of substantial deposits of North Sea oil in 1965 and the renewables sector have contributed to a degree of economic stability in recent decades. For example, the Arnish yard has had a chequered history but has been a significant employer in both the oil and renewables industries.</p><br>
<p>The widespread immigration of mainlanders, particularly non-Gaelic speakers, has been a subject of controversy.</p><br>
<h2>Media and the arts</h2><br>
<h3>Music</h3><br>
<p>Many contemporary Gaelic musicians have roots in the Hebrides, including Julie Fowlis (North Uist), Catherine-Ann MacPhee (Barra), Kathleen MacInnes (South Uist), and Ishbel MacAskill (Lewis). All of these singers have repertoire based on the Hebridean tradition, such as puirt à beul and òrain luaidh (waulking songs). This tradition includes many songs composed by little-known or anonymous poets before 1800, such as "Fear a bhàta," "Ailein duinn," and "Alasdair mhic Cholla Ghasda." Several of Runrigs songs are inspired by the archipelago; Calum and Ruaraidh Dòmhnallach were raised on North Uist and Donnie Munro on Skye.</p><br>
<p>Singer-songwriter Janet Noade used the Outer Hebrides&#39; deep sense of isolation as the theme for her song "Hebrides" (2017) which deals with her personal illness. The video for the song, remixed and titled "Hebrides (Rockall Mix)" can be found on youtube.</p><br>
<h3>Literature</h3><br>
<p>The Gaelic poet Alasdair mac Mhaighstir Alasdair spent much of his life in the Hebrides and often referred to them in his poetry, including in An Airce and Birlinn Chlann Raghnaill. The best known Gaelic poet of her era, Màiri Mhòr nan Òran (Mary MacPherson, 1821–98), embodied the spirit of the land agitation of the 1870s and 1880s. This, and her powerful evocation of the Hebrides—she was from Skye—has made her among the most enduring Gaelic poets. Allan MacDonald (1859–1905), who spent his adult life on Eriskay and South Uist, composed hymns and verse in honour of the Blessed Virgin, the Christ Child, and the Eucharist. In his secular poetry, MacDonald praised the beauty of Eriskay and its people. In his verse drama, Parlamaid nan Cailleach (The Old Wives&#39; Parliament), he lampooned the gossiping of his female parishioners and local marriage customs.</p><br>
<p>In the 20th century, Murdo Macfarlane of Lewis wrote Cànan nan Gàidheal, a well-known poem about the Gaelic revival in the Outer Hebrides.</p><br>
<p>Sorley MacLean, the most respected 20th-century Gaelic writer, was born and raised on Raasay, where he set his best known poem, Hallaig, about the devastating effect of the Highland Clearances. Aonghas Phàdraig Caimbeul, described by MacLean as "one of the few really significant living poets in Scotland, writing in any language" (West Highland Free Press, October 1992), and whose Scottish Gaelic-language novel, An Oidhche Mus do Sheòl Sinn, was voted in the Top Ten of the 100 Best-Ever Books from Scotland, was raised on South Uist.</p><br>
<h3>Film</h3><br>
<p>The area around the Inaccessible Pinnacle of Sgurr Dearg of Skye provided the setting for the Scottish Gaelic feature film Seachd: The Inaccessible Pinnacle (2006). The script was written by the actor, novelist, and poet Aonghas Phàdraig Chaimbeul, who also starred in the movie.</p><br>
<p>An Drochaid, an hourlong documentary in Scottish Gaelic, was made for BBC Alba documenting the battle to remove tolls from the Skye bridge.</p><br>
<h3>Influence on visitors</h3><br>
<p>J.M. Barries Marie Rose contains references to Harris inspired by a holiday visit to Amhuinnsuidhe Castle and he wrote a screenplay for the 1924 film adaptation of Peter Pan whilst on Eilean Shona. The Hebrides, also known as Fingals Cave, is a famous overture composed by Felix Mendelssohn while residing on these islands, while Granville Bantock composed the Hebridean Symphony. Enya&#39;s song "Ebudæ" from Shepherd Moons is named for the Hebrides (see below). The 1973 British horror film The Wicker Man is set on the fictional Hebridean island of Summerisle. The experimental first-person adventure video game Dear Esther takes place on an unnamed Hebridean island. The 2011 British romantic comedy "The Decoy Bride" is set on the fictional Hebrides island of Hegg.</p><br>
<h3>Other media</h3><br>
<p>The video game "The Other 99" is set in a fictional area in the Hebridean islands. The game was released on 25 August 2016 on Steam Early Access.</p><br>
<p>Gallowmere, the main setting of MediEvil is said to be located in the Hebrides as stated in its sequel game, Medievil 2.</p><br>
<h2>Language</h2><br>
<p>The residents of the Hebrides have spoken a variety of different languages during the long period of human occupation.</p><br>
<p>It is assumed that Pictish must once have predominated in the northern Inner Hebrides and Outer Hebrides. For a few centuries, the military might of the Gall-Ghàidheil meant that Old Norse was prevalent in the Hebrides. North of Ardnamurchan, the place names that existed prior to the 9th century have been all but obliterated. The Old Norse name for the Hebrides during the Viking occupation was Suðreyjar, which means "Southern Isles&quot in contrast to the Norðreyjar, or "Northern Isles" of Orkney and Shetland.</p><br>
<p>South of Ardnamurchan, Gaelic place names are more common, Nevertheless, as late as the end of the 19th century, there were significant populations of monolingual Gaelic speakers, and the Hebrides still contain the highest percentages of Gaelic speakers in Scotland. This is especially true of the Outer Hebrides, where a slim majority speak the language. The Scottish Gaelic college, Sabhal Mòr Ostaig, is based on Skye and Islay.</p><br>
<p>Ironically, given the status of the Western Isles as the last Gaelic-speaking stronghold in Scotland, the Gaelic language name for the islands – Innse Gall – means "isles of the foreigners&quot from the time when they were under Norse colonisation.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The earliest written references that have survived relating to the islands were made by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History, where he states that there are 30 Hebudes, and makes a separate reference to Dumna, which Watson (1926) concludes is unequivocally the Outer Hebrides. Writing about 80 years later, in 140-150 AD, Ptolemy, drawing on the earlier naval expeditions of Agricola, writes that there are five Ebudes (possibly meaning the Inner Hebrides) and Dumna. Later texts in classical Latin, by writers such as Solinus, use the forms Hebudes and Hæbudes.</p><br>
<p>The name Ebudes recorded by Ptolemy may be pre-Celtic. the use of the "p" hinting at a Brythonic or Pictish tribal name, Epidii, although the root is not Gaelic. Woolf (2012) has suggested that Ebudes may be "an Irish attempt to reproduce the word Epidii phonetically rather than by translating it" and that the tribe&#39;s name may come from the root epos meaning "horse". Watson (1926) also notes the possible relationship between Ebudes and the ancient Irish Ulaid tribal name Ibdaig and the personal name of a king Iubdán recorded in the Silva Gadelica.</p><br>
<p>The names of other individual islands reflect their complex linguistic history. The majority are Norse or Gaelic but the roots of several other Hebrides may have a pre-Celtic origin. The etymology of Skye is complex and may also include a pre-Celtic root. Lewis is Ljoðhús in Old Norse and although various suggestions have been made as to a Norse meaning (such as "song house") the name is not of Gaelic origin and the Norse credentials are questionable.</p><br>
<p>The earliest comprehensive written list of Hebridean island names was undertaken by Donald Monro in 1549, which in some cases also provides the earliest written form of the island name. The derivations of all of the inhabited islands of the Hebrides and some of the larger uninhabited ones are listed below.</p><br>
<h3>Outer Hebrides</h3><br>
<p>Lewis and Harris is the largest island in Scotland and the third largest in the British Isles, after Great Britain and Ireland. It incorporates Lewis in the north and Harris in the south, both of which are frequently referred to as individual islands, although they are joined by a land border. Remarkably, the island does not have a common name in either English or Gaelic and is referred to as "Lewis and Harris", "Lewis with Harris", "Harris with Lewis" etc. For this reason it is treated as two separate islands below. The derivation of Lewis may be pre-Celtic (see above) and the origin of Harris is no less problematic. In the Ravenna Cosmography, Erimon may refer to Harris (or possibly the Outer Hebrides as a whole). This word may derive from the Ancient Greek erimos meaning "desert". The origin of Uist (Old Norse: Ívist) is similarly unclear.</p><br>
<h3>Inner Hebrides</h3><br>
<p>There are various examples of Inner Hebridean island names that were originally Gaelic but have become completely replaced. For example, Adomnán records Sainea, Elena, Ommon and Oideacha in the Inner Hebrides, which names must have passed out of usage in the Norse era and whose locations are not clear. One of the complexities is that an island may have had a Celtic name, that was replaced by a similar-sounding Norse name, but then reverted to an essentially Gaelic name with a Norse "øy" or "ey" ending. See for example Rona below.</p><br>
<h3>Uninhabited islands</h3><br>
<p>The names of uninhabited islands follow the same general patterns as the inhabited islands. The following are the ten largest in the Hebrides and their outliers.</p><br>
<p>The etymology of St Kilda, a small archipelago west of the Outer Hebrides, and its main island Hirta is very complex. No saint is known by the name of Kilda and various theories have been proposed for the word&#39;s origin, which dates from the late 16th century. Haswell-Smith (2004) notes that the full name "St Kilda" first appears on a Dutch map dated 1666, and that it may have been derived from Norse sunt kelda ("sweet wellwater") or from a mistaken Dutch assumption that the spring Tobar Childa was dedicated to a saint. (Tobar Childa is a tautological placename, consisting of the Gaelic and Norse words for well, i.e. "well well"). The origin of the Gaelic for "Hirta"—Hiort, Hirt, or Irt—which long pre-dates the use of "St Kilda", is similarly open to interpretation. Watson (1926) offers the Old Irish hirt, a word meaning "death", possibly relating to the dangerous seas. Maclean (1977), drawing on an Icelandic saga describing an early 13th-century voyage to Ireland that mentions a visit to the islands of Hirtir, speculates that the shape of Hirta resembles a stag, hirtir being "stags" in Norse.</p><br>
<p>The etymology of small islands may be no less complex. In relation to Dubh Artach, R. L. Stevenson believed that "black and dismal" was a translation of the name, noting that "as usual, in Gaelic, it is not the only one."</p><br>
<h2>Natural history</h2><br>
<p>In some respects the Hebrides lack biodiversity in comparison to mainland Britain; for example, there are only half as many mammalian species. However, these islands provide breeding grounds for many important seabird species including the world&#39;s largest colony of northern gannets. Avian life includes the corncrake, red-throated diver, rock dove, kittiwake, tystie, Atlantic puffin, goldeneye, golden eagle and white-tailed sea eagle. The last named was re-introduced to Rùm in 1975 and has successfully spread to various neighbouring islands, including Mull. There is a small population of red-billed chough concentrated on the islands of Islay and Colonsay.</p><br>
<p>Red deer are common on the hills and the grey seal and common seal are present around the coasts of Scotland. Colonies of seals are found on Oronsay and the Treshnish Isles. The rich freshwater streams contain brown trout, Atlantic salmon and water shrew. Offshore, minke whales, Killer whales, basking sharks, porpoises and dolphins are among the sealife that can be seen.</p><br>
<p>Heather moor containing ling, bell heather, cross-leaved heath, bog myrtle and fescues is abundant and there is a diversity of Arctic and alpine plants including Alpine pearlwort and mossy cyphal.</p><br>
<p>Loch Druidibeg on South Uist is a national nature reserve owned and managed by Scottish Natural Heritage. The reserve covers 1,677 hectares across the whole range of local habitats. Over 200 species of flowering plants have been recorded on the reserve, some of which are nationally scarce. South Uist is considered the best place in the UK for the aquatic plant slender naiad, which is a European Protected Species.</p><br>
<p>Hedgehogs are not native to the Outer Hebrides—they were introduced in the 1970s to reduce garden pests—and their spread poses a threat to the eggs of ground nesting wading birds. In 2003, Scottish Natural Heritage undertook culls of hedgehogs in the area although these were halted in 2007 due to protests; trapped animals were instead relocated to the mainland.</p><br>
<p>The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the worlds oceanic divisions, covering 70,560,000 km&sup2; . It is bounded by Asia on the north, on the west by Africa, on the east by Australia, and on the south by the Southern Ocean or, depending on definition, by Antarctica. It is named after India. The Indian Ocean is known as Ratnākara , "the mine of gems" in ancient Sanskrit literature, and as Hind Mahāsāgar , in Hindi.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The borders of the Indian Ocean, as delineated by the International Hydrographic Organization in 1953 included the Southern Ocean but not the marginal seas along the northern rim, but in 2000 the IHO delimited the Southern Ocean separately, which removed waters south of 60°S from the Indian Ocean, but included the northern marginal seas. Meridionally, the Indian Ocean is delimited from the Atlantic Ocean by the 20° east meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas, and from the Pacific Ocean by the meridian of 146°55&#39;E, running south from the southernmost point of Tasmania. The northernmost extent of the Indian Ocean is approximately 30° north in the Persian Gulf.</p><br>
<p>The Indian Ocean covers 70,560,000 km&sup2, including the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf but excluding the Southern Ocean, or 19.5% of the worlds oceans; its volume is 264,000,000 km3 or 19.8% of the worlds oceans&#39; volume; it has an average depth of 3,741 m and a maximum depth of 7,906 m.</p><br>
<p>The oceans continental shelves are narrow, averaging 200 km in width. An exception is found off Australias western coast, where the shelf width exceeds 1,000 km. The average depth of the ocean is 3,890 m. Its deepest point is Diamantina Deep in Diamantina Trench, at 8,047 m deep; Sunda Trench has a depth of 7,258 -. North of 50° south latitude, 86% of the main basin is covered by pelagic sediments, of which more than half is globigerina ooze. The remaining 14% is layered with terrigenous sediments. Glacial outwash dominates the extreme southern latitudes.</p><br>
<p>The major choke points include Bab el Mandeb, Strait of Hormuz, the Lombok Strait, the Strait of Malacca and the Palk Strait. Seas include the Gulf of Aden, Andaman Sea, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, Great Australian Bight, Laccadive Sea, Gulf of Mannar, Mozambique Channel, Gulf of Oman, Persian Gulf, Red Sea and other tributary water bodies. The Indian Ocean is artificially connected to the Mediterranean Sea through the Suez Canal, which is accessible via the Red Sea. All of the Indian Ocean is in the Eastern Hemisphere and the centre of the Eastern Hemisphere is in this ocean.</p><br>
<h3>Marginal seas</h3><br>
<p>Marginal seas, gulfs, bays and straits of the Indian Ocean include:</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The climate north of the equator is affected by a monsoon climate. Strong north-east winds blow from October until April; from May until October south and west winds prevail. In the Arabian Sea the violent Monsoon brings rain to the Indian subcontinent. In the southern hemisphere, the winds are generally milder, but summer storms near Mauritius can be severe. When the monsoon winds change, cyclones sometimes strike the shores of the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.</p><br>
<p>The Indian Ocean is the warmest ocean in the world. Long-term ocean temperature records show a rapid, continuous warming in the Indian Ocean, at about 0.7 - during 1901–2012. Indian Ocean warming is the largest among the tropical oceans, and about 3 times faster than the warming observed in the Pacific. Research indicates that human induced greenhouse warming, and changes in the frequency and magnitude of El Niño events are a trigger to this strong warming in the Indian Ocean.</p><br>
<h2>Oceanography</h2><br>
<p>Among the few large rivers flowing into the Indian Ocean are the Zambezi, Shatt al-Arab, Indus, Godavari, Krishna, Narmada, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Jubba and Irrawaddy. The ocean&#39;s currents are mainly controlled by the monsoon. Two large gyres, one in the northern hemisphere flowing clockwise and one south of the equator moving anticlockwise (including the Agulhas Current and Agulhas Return Current), constitute the dominant flow pattern. During the winter monsoon, however, currents in the north are reversed.</p><br>
<p>Deep water circulation is controlled primarily by inflows from the Atlantic Ocean, the Red Sea, and Antarctic currents. North of 20° south latitude the minimum surface temperature is 22 &deg;C, exceeding 28 &deg;C to the east. Southward of 40° south latitude, temperatures drop quickly.</p><br>
<p>Precipitation and evaporation leads to salinity variation in all oceans, and in the Indian Ocean salinity variations are driven by: (1) river inflow mainly from the Bay of Bengal, (2) fresher water from the Indonesian Throughflow; and (3) saltier water from the Red Sea and Persian Gulf.</p><br>
<p>Surface water salinity ranges from 32 to 37 parts per 1000, the highest occurring in the Arabian Sea and in a belt between southern Africa and south-western Australia. Pack ice and icebergs are found throughout the year south of about 65° south latitude. The average northern limit of icebergs is 45° south latitude.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>As the youngest of the major oceans, the Indian Ocean has active spreading ridges that are part of the worldwide system of mid-ocean ridges. In the Indian Ocean these spreading ridges meet at the Rodrigues Triple Point with the Central Indian Ridge, including the Carlsberg Ridge, separating the African Plate from the Indian Plate; the Southwest Indian Ridge separating the African Plate form the Antarctic Plate; and the Southeast Indian Ridge separating the Australian Plate from the Antarctic Plate.The Central Ridge runs north on the in-between across of the Arabian Peninsula and Africa into the Mediterranean Sea.</p><br>
<p>A series of ridges and seamount chains produced by hotspots pass over the Indian Ocean. The Réunion hotspot (active 70–40 million years ago) connects Réunion and the Mascarene Plateau to the Chagos-Laccadive Ridge and the Deccan Traps in north-western India; the Kerguelen hotspot (100–35 million years ago) connects the Kerguelen Islands and Kerguelen Plateau to the Ninety East Ridge and the Rajmahal Traps in north-eastern India; the Marion hotspot (100–70 million years ago) possibly connects Prince Edward Islands to the Eighty Five East Ridge. It should be noted that these hotspot tracks have been broken by the still active spreading ridges mentioned above.</p><br>
<h2>Marine life</h2><br>
<p>Among the tropical oceans, the western Indian Ocean hosts one of the largest concentration of phytoplankton blooms in summer, due to the strong monsoon winds. The monsoonal wind forcing leads to a strong coastal and open ocean upwelling, which introduces nutrients into the upper zones where sufficient light is available for photosynthesis and phytoplankton production. These phytoplankton blooms support the marine ecosystem, as the base of the marine food web, and eventually the larger fish species. The Indian Ocean accounts for the second largest share of the most economically valuable tuna catch. Its fish are of great and growing importance to the bordering countries for domestic consumption and export. Fishing fleets from Russia, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan also exploit the Indian Ocean, mainly for shrimp and tuna.</p><br>
<p>Research indicates that increasing ocean temperatures are taking a toll on the marine ecosystem. A study on the phytoplankton changes in the Indian Ocean indicates a decline of up to 20% in the marine phytoplankton in the Indian Ocean, during the past six decades. The tuna catch rates have also declined abruptly during the past half century, mostly due to increased industrial fisheries, with the ocean warming adding further stress to the fish species.</p><br>
<p>Endangered marine species include the dugong, seals, turtles, and whales.</p><br>
<p>An Indian Ocean garbage patch was discovered in 2010 covering at least 5 e6km2. Riding the southern Indian Ocean Gyre, this vortex of plastic garbage constantly circulates the ocean from Australia to Africa, down the Mozambique Channel, and back to Australia in a period of six years, except for debris that get indefinitely stuck in the centre of the gyre.</p><br>
<p>In 2016, UK researchers from Southampton University identified six new animal species at hydrothermal vents beneath the Indian Ocean. These new species were a "Hoff" crab, a "giant peltospirid" snail, a whelk-like snail, a limpet, a scaleworm and a polychaete worm.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>First settlements</h3><br>
<p>The history of the Indian Ocean is marked by maritime trade; cultural and commercial exchange probably date back at least seven thousand years. During this period, independent, short-distance oversea communications along its littoral margins have evolved into an all-embracing network. The début of this network was not the achievement of a centralised or advanced civilisation but of local and regional exchange in the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and Arabian Sea. Sherds of Ubaid (2500–500 BCE) pottery have been found in the western Gulf at Dilmun, present-day Bahrain; traces of exchange between this trading centre and Mesopotamia. Sumerian traded grain, pottery, and bitumen (used for reed boats) for copper, stone, timber, tin, dates, onions, and pearls.</p><br>
<p>Coast-bound vessels transported goods between the Harappa civilisation (2600–1900 BCE) in India (modern-day Pakistan and Gujarat in India) and the Persian Gulf and Egypt.</p><br>
<p>Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, an Alexandrian guide to the world beyond the Red Sea — including Africa and India — from the first century CE, not only gives insights into trade in the region but also shows that Roman and Greek sailors had already gained knowledge about the monsoon winds. The contemporaneous settlement of Madagascar by Indonesian sailors shows that the littoral margins of the Indian Ocean were being both well-populated and regularly traversed at least by this time. Albeit the monsoon must have been common knowledge in the Indian Ocean for centuries.</p><br>
<p>The world&#39;s earliest civilizations in Mesopotamia (beginning with Sumer), ancient Egypt, and the Indian subcontinent (beginning with the Indus Valley civilization), which began along the valleys of the Tigris-Euphrates, Nile and Indus rivers respectively, all developed around the Indian Ocean. Civilizations soon arose in Persia (beginning with Elam) and later in Southeast Asia (beginning with Funan).</p><br>
<p>During Egypt&#39;s first dynasty ( 3000 BCE), sailors were sent out onto its waters, journeying to Punt, thought to be part of present-day Somalia. Returning ships brought gold and myrrh. The earliest known maritime trade between Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley (c. 2500 BC) was conducted along the Indian Ocean. Phoenicians of the late 3rd millennium BCE may have entered the area, but no settlements resulted.</p><br>
<p>The Indian Ocean&#39;s relatively calmer waters opened the areas bordering it to trade earlier than the Atlantic or Pacific oceans. The powerful monsoons also meant ships could easily sail west early in the season, then wait a few months and return eastwards. This allowed ancient Indonesian peoples to cross the Indian Ocean to settle in Madagascar around 1 CE.</p><br>
<h3>Era of discovery</h3><br>
<p>In the 2nd or 1st century BCE, Eudoxus of Cyzicus was the first Greek to cross the Indian Ocean. The probably fictitious sailor Hippalus is said to have discovered the direct route from Arabia to India around this time. During the 1st and 2nd centuries AD intensive trade relations developed between Roman Egypt and the Tamil kingdoms of the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas in Southern India. Like the Indonesian peoples above, the western sailors used the monsoon to cross the ocean. The unknown author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea describes this route, as well as the commodities that were traded along various commercial ports on the coasts of the Horn of Africa and India circa 1 CE. Among these trading settlements were Mosylon and Opone on the Red Sea littoral.</p><br>
<p>Unlike the Pacific Ocean where the civilization of the Polynesians reached most of the far flung islands and atolls and populated them, almost all the islands, archipelagos and atolls of the Indian Ocean were uninhabited until colonial times. Although there were numerous ancient civilizations in the coastal states of Asia and parts of Africa, the Maldives were the only island group in the Central Indian Ocean region where an ancient civilization flourished. Maldivian ships used the Indian Monsoon Current to travel to the nearby coasts.</p><br>
<p>From 1405 to 1433 Admiral Zheng He led large fleets of the Ming Dynasty on several treasure voyages through the Indian Ocean, ultimately reaching the coastal countries of East Africa.</p><br>
<p>In 1497 Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope and became the first European to sail to India and later the Far East. The European ships, armed with heavy cannon, quickly dominated trade. Portugal achieved pre-eminence by setting up forts at the important straits and ports. Their hegemony along the coasts of Africa and Asia lasted until the mid 17th century. Later, the Portuguese were challenged by other European powers. The Dutch East India Company (1602–1798) sought control of trade with the East across the Indian Ocean. France and Britain established trade companies for the area. From 1565 Spain established a major trading operation with the Manila Galleons in the Philippines and the Pacific. Spanish trading ships purposely avoided the Indian Ocean, following the Treaty of Tordesillas with Portugal. By 1815, Britain became the principal power in the Indian Ocean.</p><br>
<h3>Industrial era</h3><br>
<p>The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 revived European interest in the East, but no nation was successful in establishing trade dominance. Since World War II the United Kingdom was forced to withdraw from the area, to be replaced by India, the USSR, and the United States. The last two tried to establish hegemony by negotiating for naval base sites. Developing countries bordering the ocean, however, seek to have it made a "zone of peace" so that they may use its shipping lanes freely. The United Kingdom and United States maintain a military base on Diego Garcia atoll in the middle of the Indian Ocean.</p><br>
<h3>Contemporary era</h3><br>
<p>On 26 December 2004 the countries surrounding the Indian Ocean were hit by a tsunami caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. The waves resulted in more than 226,000 deaths and over 1 million people were left homeless.</p><br>
<p>In the late 2000s the ocean evolved into a hub of pirate activity. By 2013, attacks off the Horn region&#39;s coast had steadily declined due to active private security and international navy patrols, especially by the Indian Navy.</p><br>
<p>Malaysian Airlines Flight 370, a Boeing 777 airliner with 239 persons on board, disappeared on 8 March 2014 and is alleged to have crashed into the southeastern Indian Ocean about 2,000km from the coast of southwest Western Australia. Despite an extensive search, the whereabouts of the remains of the aircraft are unknown.</p><br>
<h2>Trade</h2><br>
<p>The sea lanes in the Indian Ocean are considered among the most strategically important in the world with more than 80 percent of the world’s seaborne trade in oil transits through Indian Ocean and its vital choke points, with 40 percent passing through the Strait of Hormuz, 35 percent through the Strait of Malacca and 8 percent through the Bab el-Mandab Strait. off the coast of Kenya</p><br>
<p>The Indian Ocean provides major sea routes connecting the Middle East, Africa, and East Asia with Europe and the Americas. It carries a particularly heavy traffic of petroleum and petroleum products from the oil fields of the Persian Gulf and Indonesia. Large reserves of hydrocarbons are being tapped in the offshore areas of Saudi Arabia, Iran, India, and Western Australia. An estimated 40% of the world&#39;s offshore oil production comes from the Indian Ocean. Beach sands rich in heavy minerals, and offshore placer deposits are actively exploited by bordering countries, particularly India, Pakistan, South Africa, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.</p><br>
<h3>Major ports and harbours</h3><br>
<p>The Port of Singapore is the busiest port in the Indian Ocean, located in the Strait of Malacca where it meets the Pacific. Mumbai, Trivandrum, Chennai, Kolkata, Kochi, Mormugao Port, Mundra, Panambur, Hazira, Port Blair, Alang, Visakhapatnam, Paradip, Ennore, Tuticorin and Nagapattinam are the other major ports in India. South Asian ports include Chittagong in Bangladesh, Colombo, Hambantota and Galle in Sri Lanka, and ports of Karachi, Sindh province and Gwadar, Balochistan province in Pakistan. Aden is a major port in Yemen and controls ships entering the Red Sea. Major African ports on the shores of the Indian Ocean include: Mombasa (Kenya), Dar es Salaam, Zanzibar (Tanzania), Durban, East London, Richard&#39;s Bay (South Africa), Beira (Mozambique), and Port Louis (Mauritius). Zanzibar is especially famous for its spice export. Other major ports in the Indian Ocean include Muscat (Oman), Yangon (Burma), Jakarta, Medan (Indonesia), Fremantle (port servicing Perth, Australia) and Dubai (UAE).</p><br>
<p>Chinese companies have made investments in several Indian Ocean ports, including Gwadar, Hambantota, Colombo and Sonadia. This has sparked a debate about the strategic implications of these investments.</p><br>
<h2>Bordering countries and territories</h2><br>
<p>Small islands dot the continental rims. Island nations within the ocean are Madagascar (the world&#39;s fourth largest island), Bahrain, Comoros, Maldives, Mauritius, Seychelles and Sri Lanka. The archipelago of Indonesia and the island nation of East Timor border the ocean on the east.</p><br>
<p>Heading roughly clockwise, the states and territories (in italics) with a coastline on the Indian Ocean (including the Red Sea and Persian Gulf) are:</p><br>
<p>Africa</p><br>
<p>(FRA)</p><br>
<p>(Mayotte and Réunion)</p><br>
<p>Asia</p><br>
<p>(UK)</p><br>
<p>(AUS)</p><br>
<p>(AUS)</p><br>
<p>Australasia</p><br>
<p>Ashmore and Cartier Islands (AUS)</p><br>
<p>Southern Indian Ocean</p><br>
<p>Heard Island and McDonald Islands (AUS)</p><br>
<p>(FRA)</p><br>
<p>Prince Edward Islands (RSA)</p><br>
<p>Iao Valley  is a lush, stream-cut valley in West Maui, Hawaii, located 5 km west of Wailuku. Because of its natural environment and history, it has become a tourist location. It was designated a National Natural Landmark in 1972.</p><br>
<h2>Iao Valley State Monument</h2><br>
<p>The state park is located on 6.2 acre at the end of Iao Valley Road (Highway 32). The Iao Needle (Kūkaemoku) is a famous landmark in the state park, a vegetation-covered lava remnant rising 1,200 ft from the valley floor or 2,250 ft when measured from sea level. The "needle" itself is an illusion, and is in reality a sharp ridge that gives the appearance of being a spire when viewed end-on. The needle is an extension of and surrounded by the cliffs of the West Maui Mountains, an extinct volcano. One can take a short trail (Iao Needle Lookout Trail and Ethnobotanical Loop) to a windy overlook. Park hours vary depending on season. Visit for specific hours of operation.</p><br>
<h2>Rainforest</h2><br>
<p>Iao Valley is covered in dense rainforest, most of which consists of introduced vegetation on the valley floor. The Puu Kukui summit area at the valleys head receives an average 386 in of rainfall per year, making it the states second wettest location after Mount Waialeale. Much of this rainfall ends up flowing into the Iao Stream. Trails in the State Park run alongside Iao Stream and through the forest.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Hawaiian god Kāne is considered to be the procreator and the provider of life. He is associated with wai (fresh water) as well as clouds, rain, streams, and springs. Kanaloa, the Hawaiian god of the underworld, is represented by the phallic stone of the Iao Needle.</p><br>
<p>Kapawa, the king of Hawaii prior to Pili, was buried here. Maui&#39;s ruler Kakae, in the late 15th century, designated Iao Valley as an alii burial ground. The remains were buried in secret places. In 1790, the Battle of Kepaniwai took place there, in which Kamehameha the Great defeated Kalanikūpule and the Maui army during his campaign to unify the islands. The battle was said to be so bloody that dead bodies blocked Iao Stream, and the battle site was named Kepaniwai ("the damming of the waters").</p><br>
<p>20th Century Fox&#39;s 1997 motion picture Turbo: A Power Rangers Movie was partially filmed here.</p><br>
<h2>Kepaniwai Park's Heritage Gardens</h2><br>
<p>Since 1952, Kepaniwai Parks Heritage Gardens have memorialized Mauis multicultural history. Scale models of ethnic buildings and gardens representing the immigration of Hawaiian, American missionary, Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, Korean, and Filipino cultures are the parks highlight. The gardens were restored in 1994. The Hawaii nature center is located just outside the gardens, which provides access to a museum and childrens education about Hawaii and conservation.</p><br>
<p>The Iberian Peninsula, also known as Iberia, is located in the southwest corner of Europe. The peninsula is principally divided between Portugal and Spain, comprising most of their territory. It also includes Andorra, and a small part of France along the peninsula&#39;s northeastern edge, as well as Gibraltar on its south coast, a small peninsula that forms an overseas territory of the United Kingdom. With an area of approximately 582,000 km&sup2, it is the second largest European peninsula, after the Scandinavian.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<h3>Greek name</h3><br>
<p>The English word Iberia was adapted from the use of the Ancient Greek word Ἰβηρία by Greek geographers under the rule of the Roman Empire to refer to what is known today in English as the Iberian Peninsula. At that time, the name did not describe a single political entity or a distinct population of people. Strabos Iberia&#39; was delineated from Keltikē (Gaul) by the Pyrenees and included the entire land mass southwest (he says "west") of there.</p><br>
<p>The ancient Greeks reached the Iberian Peninsula, of which they had heard from the Phoenicians, by voyaging westward on the Mediterranean. Hecataeus of Miletus was the first known to use the term Iberia, which he wrote about circa 500 BC. Herodotus of Halicarnassus says of the Phocaeans that "it was they who made the Greeks acquainted with... Iberia." According to Strabo, prior historians used Iberia to mean the country "this side of the Ἶβηρος " as far north as the river Rhône in France, but currently they set the Pyrenees as the limit. Polybius respects that limit, but identifies Iberia as the Mediterranean side as far south as Gibraltar, with the Atlantic side having no name. Elsewhere he says that Saguntum is "on the seaward foot of the range of hills connecting Iberia and Celtiberia."</p><br>
<p>Strabo refers to the Carretanians as people "of the Iberian stock" living in the Pyrenees, who are distinct from either Celts or Celtiberians.</p><br>
<h3>Roman names</h3><br>
<p>According to Charles Ebel, the ancient sources in both Latin and Greek use Hispania and Hiberia (Greek: Iberia) as synonyms. The confusion of the words was because of an overlapping in political and geographic perspectives. The Latin word Hiberia, similar to the Greek Iberia, literally translates to "land of the Hiberians". This word was derived from the river Ebro, which the Romans called Hiberus. Hiber (Iberian) was thus used as a term for peoples living near the river Ebro. The first mention in Roman literature was by the annalist poet Ennius in 200 BC. Virgil refers to the Ipacatos Hiberos ("restless Iberi") in his Georgics. The Roman geographers and other prose writers from the time of the late Roman Republic called the entire peninsula Hispania.</p><br>
<p>As they became politically interested in the former Carthaginian territories, the Romans began to use the names Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior for near and far Hispania. At the time Hispania was made up of three Roman provinces: Hispania Baetica, Hispania Tarraconensis, and Lusitania. Strabo says that the Romans use Hispania and Iberia synonymously, distinguishing between the near northern and the far southern provinces. (The name "Iberia" was ambiguous, being also the name of the Kingdom of Iberia in the Caucasus.)</p><br>
<p>Whatever language may generally have been spoken on the peninsula soon gave way to Latin, except for that of the Vascones, which was preserved as a language isolate by the barrier of the Pyrenees.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The Iberian Peninsula has always been associated with the Ebro, Ibēros in ancient Greek and Ibērus or Hibērus in Latin. The association was so well known it was hardly necessary to state; for example, Ibēria was the country "this side of the Ibērus" in Strabo. Pliny goes so far as to assert that the Greeks had called "the whole of Spain" Hiberia because of the Hiberus River. The river appears in the Ebro Treaty of 226 BC between Rome and Carthage, setting the limit of Carthaginian interest at the Ebro. The fullest description of the treaty, stated in Appian, uses Ibērus. With reference to this border, Polybius states that the "native name" is Ibēr, apparently the original word, stripped of its Greek or Latin -os or -us termination.</p><br>
<p>The early range of these natives, which geographers and historians place from todays southern Spain to todays southern France along the Mediterranean coast, is marked by instances of a readable script expressing a yet unknown language, dubbed "Iberian." Whether this was the native name or was given to them by the Greeks for their residence on the Ebro remains unknown. Credence in Polybius imposes certain limitations on etymologizing: if the language remains unknown, the meanings of the words, including Iber, must also remain unknown. In modern Basque, the word ibar means "valley" or "watered meadow", while ibai means "river", but there is no proof relating the etymology of the Ebro River with these Basque names. In Serbia, there is river Ibar, but there is no proof relating the etymology of the Ebro River with this Serbian river name.</p><br>
<h2>Prehistory</h2><br>
<h3>Palaeolithic</h3><br>
<p>The Iberian Peninsula has been inhabited for at least 1.2 million years as remains found in the sites in the Atapuerca Mountains demonstrate. Among these sites is the cave of Gran Dolina, where six hominin skeletons, dated between 780,000 and one million years ago, were found in 1994. Experts have debated whether these skeletons belong to the species Homo erectus, Homo heidelbergensis, or a new species called Homo antecessor.</p><br>
<p>Around 200,000 BP, during the Lower Paleolithic period, Neanderthals first entered the Iberian Peninsula. Around 70,000 BP, during the Middle Paleolithic period, the last glacial event began and the Neanderthal Mousterian culture was established. Around 37,000 BP, during the Upper Paleolithic, the Neanderthal Châtelperronian cultural period began. Emanating from Southern France, this culture extended into the north of the peninsula. It continued to exist until around 30,000 BP, when Neanderthal man faced extinction.</p><br>
<p>About 40,000 years ago, anatomically modern humans entered the Iberian Peninsula from Southern France. Here, this genetically homogeneous population (characterized by the M173 mutation in the Y chromosome), developed the M343 mutation, giving rise to Haplogroup R1b, still the most common in modern Portuguese and Spanish males. On the Iberian Peninsula, modern humans developed a series of different cultures, such as the Aurignacian, Gravettian, Solutrean and Magdalenian cultures, some of them characterized by the complex forms of the art of the Upper Paleolithic.</p><br>
<h3>Neolithic</h3><br>
<p>During the Neolithic expansion, various megalithic cultures developed in the Iberian Peninsula. An open seas navigation culture from the east Mediterranean, called the Cardium culture, also extended its influence to the eastern coasts of the peninsula, possibly as early as the 5th millennium BC. These people may have had some relation to the subsequent development of the Iberian civilization.</p><br>
<h3>Chalcolithic</h3><br>
<p>In the Chalcolithic (c. 3000 BC), a series of complex cultures developed that would give rise to the peninsula&#39;s first civilizations and to extensive exchange networks reaching to the Baltic, Middle East and North Africa. Around 2800 – 2700 BC, the Beaker culture, which produced the Maritime Bell Beaker, probably originated in the vibrant copper-using communities of the Tagus estuary in Portugal and spread from there to many parts of western Europe.</p><br>
<h3>Bronze Age</h3><br>
<p>Bronze Age cultures developed beginning c.1800 BC, when the civilization of Los Millares was followed by that of El Argar. From this centre, bronze technology spread to other cultures like the Bronze of Levante, South-Western Iberian Bronze and Las Cogotas.</p><br>
<p>In the Late Bronze Age, the urban civilisation of Tartessos developed in the area of modern western Andalusia, characterized by Phoenician influence and using the Southwest Paleohispanic script for its Tartessian language, not related to the Iberian language.</p><br>
<p>Early in the first millennium BC, several waves of Pre-Celts and Celts migrated from Central Europe, thus partially changing the peninsula&#39;s ethnic landscape to Indo-European-speaking in its northern and western regions. In Northwestern Iberia (modern Northern Portugal, Asturias and Galicia), a Celtic culture developed, the Castro culture, with a large number of hill forts and some fortified cities.</p><br>
<h2>Proto-history</h2><br>
<p>By the Iron Age, starting in the 7th century BC, the Iberian Peninsula consisted of complex agrarian and urban civilizations, either Pre-Celtic or Celtic (such as the Lusitanians, Celtiberians, Gallaeci, Astures, Celtici and others), the cultures of the Iberians in the eastern and southern zones and the cultures of the Aquitanian in the western portion of the Pyrenees.</p><br>
<p>The seafaring Phoenicians, Greeks and Carthaginians successively settled along the Mediterranean coast and founded trading colonies there over a period of several centuries. Around 1100 BC, Phoenician merchants founded the trading colony of Gadir or Gades (modern day Cádiz) near Tartessos. In the 8th century BC, the first Greek colonies, such as Emporion (modern Empúries), were founded along the Mediterranean coast on the east, leaving the south coast to the Phoenicians. The Greeks coined the name Iberia, after the river Iber (Ebro). In the sixth century BC, the Carthaginians arrived in the peninsula while struggling with the Greeks for control of the Western Mediterranean. Their most important colony was Carthago Nova (modern-day Cartagena, Spain).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Roman rule</h3><br>
<p>In 218 BC, during the Second Punic War against the Carthaginians, the first Roman troops invaded the Iberian Peninsula; however, it was not until the reign of Augustus that it was annexed after two centuries of war with the Celtic and Iberian tribes and the Phoenician, Greek and Carthaginian colonies. The result was the creation of the province of Hispania. It was divided into Hispania Ulterior and Hispania Citerior during the late Roman Republic, and during the Roman Empire, it was divided into Hispania Tarraconensis in the northeast, Hispania Baetica in the south and Lusitania in the southwest.</p><br>
<p>Hispania supplied the Roman Empire with silver, food, olive oil, wine, and metal. The emperors Trajan, Hadrian, Marcus Aurelius, and Theodosius I, the philosopher Seneca the Younger, and the poets Martial and Lucan were born from families living on the Iberian Peninsula.</p><br>
<h3>Germanic kingdoms</h3><br>
<p>In the early fifth century, Germanic peoples invaded the peninsula, namely the Suebi, the Vandals (Silingi and Hasdingi) and their allies, the Alans. Only the kingdom of the Suebi (Quadi and Marcomanni) would endure after the arrival of another wave of Germanic invaders, the Visigoths, who conquered all of the Iberian Peninsula and expelled or partially integrated the Vandals and the Alans. The Visigoths eventually conquered the Suebi kingdom and its capital city, Bracara (modern day Braga), in 584–585. They would also conquer the province of the Byzantine Empire (552–624) of Spania in the south of the peninsula and the Balearic Islands.</p><br>
<h3>Islamic Caliphate</h3><br>
<p>In 711, a Muslim army invaded the Visigothic Kingdom in Hispania. Under Tariq ibn Ziyad, the Islamic army landed at Gibraltar and, in an eight-year campaign, occupied all except the northern kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula in the Umayyad conquest of Hispania. Al-Andalus (الإندلس, tr. al-ʾAndalūs, possibly "Land of the Vandals"), is the Arabic name given to what is today southern Spain by its Muslim Berber and Arab occupiers.</p><br>
<p>From the 8th–15th centuries, only the southern part of the Iberian Peninsula was incorporated into the Islamic world and became a center of culture and learning, especially during the Caliphate of Córdoba, which reached its height under the rule of Abd-ar-Rahman III. The Muslims, who were initially Arabs and Berbers, included some local converts, the so-called Muladi. The Muslims were referred to by the generic name, Moors. The Reconquista gained momentum on c. 718, when the Christian Asturians opposed the Moors, the southern march to push out the Muslims continued for three hundred years, so for another four hundred years, only the southern part of the Iberian Peninsula was transformed into a Romance-speaking and Arabic-speaking Muslim land, along with pockets of a large minority of Arabic-speaking Sephardi Jews.</p><br>
<h3>Reconquest</h3><br>
<p>Many of the ousted Gothic nobles took refuge in the unconquered north Kingdom of Asturias. From there, they aimed to reconquer their lands from the Moors; this war of reconquest is known as the Reconquista. Christian and Muslim kingdoms fought and allied among themselves. The Muslim taifa kings competed in patronage of the arts, the Camino de Santiago attracted pilgrims from all Western Europe, and the Jewish population set the basis of Sephardi culture.</p><br>
<p>During the Middle Ages, the peninsula housed many small states including the Kingdom of Castile, Crown of Aragon, Kingdom of Navarre, Kingdom of León and the Kingdom of Portugal. The peninsula was part of the Almohad Caliphate until they were finally uprooted. The last major Muslim stronghold was Granada, which was conquered by a combined Castilian and Aragonese force in 1492. Muslims and Jews throughout the period were variously tolerated or shown intolerance in different Christian kingdoms. However, after the fall of Granada, all Muslims and Jews were ordered to convert to Christianity or face expulsion. Many Jews and Muslims fled to North Africa and the Ottoman Empire, while others publicly converted to Christianity and became known respectively as Marranos and Moriscos. However, many of these continued to practice their religion in secret. The Moriscos revolted several times and were ultimately forcibly expelled from Spain in the early 17th century.</p><br>
<h3>Post-reconquest</h3><br>
<p>The small states gradually amalgamated over time, with the exception of Portugal, even if for a brief period (1580–1640) the whole peninsula was united politically under the Iberian Union. After that point, the modern position was reached and the peninsula now consists of the countries of Spain and Portugal (excluding their islands—the Portuguese Azores and Madeira and the Spanish Canary Islands and Balearic Islands; and the Spanish exclaves of Ceuta and Melilla), Andorra, French Cerdagne and Gibraltar.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and geology</h2><br>
<p>The Iberian Peninsula is the westernmost of the three major southern European peninsulas—the Iberian, Italian, and Balkan. It is bordered on the southeast and east by the Mediterranean Sea, and on the north, west, and southwest by the Atlantic Ocean. The Pyrenees mountains are situated along the northeast edge of the peninsula, where it adjoins the rest of Europe. Its southern tip is very close to the northwest coast of Africa, separated from it by the Strait of Gibraltar and the Mediterranean Sea.</p><br>
<p>The Iberian Peninsula extends from the southernmost extremity at Punta de Tarifa (36&deg;00&prime;15&Prime;N latitude, 5&deg;36&prime;37&Prime;W longitude) to the northernmost extremity at Punta de Estaca de Bares (43&deg;47&prime;38&Prime;N latitude, 7&deg;41&prime;17&Prime;W longitude) over a distance between lines of latitude of about 865 km based on a degree length of 111 km per degree, and from the westernmost extremity at Cabo da Roca (38&deg;46&prime;51&Prime;N latitude, 9&deg;29&prime;54&Prime;W longitude) to the easternmost extremity at Cap de Creus (42&deg;19&prime;09&Prime;N latitude, 3&deg;19&prime;19&Prime;E longitude) over a distance between lines of longitude at 40° N latitude of about 1,155 km based on an estimated degree length of about 90 km for that latitude. The irregular, roughly octagonal shape of the peninsula contained within this spherical quadrangle was compared to an ox-hide by the geographer Strabo.</p><br>
<p>About three quarters of that rough octagon is the Meseta Central, a vast plateau ranging from 610 to 760 m in altitude. It is located approximately in the centre, staggered slightly to the east and tilted slightly toward the west (the conventional centre of the Iberian Peninsula has long been considered Getafe just south of Madrid). It is ringed by mountains and contains the sources of most of the rivers, which find their way through gaps in the mountain barriers on all sides.</p><br>
<h3>Coastline</h3><br>
<p>The coastline of the Iberian Peninsula is 3,313 km, 1,660 km on the Mediterranean side and 1,653 km on the Atlantic side. The coast has been inundated over time, with sea levels having risen from a minimum of 115 - lower than today at the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) to its current level at 4,000 years BP. The coastal shelf created by sedimentation during that time remains below the surface; however, it was never very extensive on the Atlantic side, as the continental shelf drops rather steeply into the depths. An estimated 700 km length of Atlantic shelf is only 10 - wide. At the 500 m isobath, on the edge, the shelf drops off to 1,000 m.</p><br>
<p>The submarine topography of the coastal waters of the Iberian Peninsula has been studied extensively in the process of drilling for oil. Ultimately, the shelf drops into the Bay of Biscay on the north (an abyss), the Iberian abyssal plain at 4,800 m on the west, and Tagus abyssal plain to the south. In the north, between the continental shelf and the abyss, is an extension called the Galicia Bank, a plateau that also contains the Porto, Vigo, and Vasco da Gama seamounts, which form the Galicia interior basin. The southern border of these features is marked by Nazaré Canyon, which splits the continental shelf and leads directly into the abyss.</p><br>
<h3>Rivers</h3><br>
<p>The major rivers flow through the wide valleys between the mountain systems. These are the Ebro, Douro, Tagus, Guadiana and Guadalquivir. All rivers in the Iberian Peninsula are subject to seasonal variations in flow.</p><br>
<p>The Tagus is the longest river on the peninsula and, like the Douro, flows westwards with its lower course in Portugal. The Guadiana river bends southwards and forms the border between Spain and Portugal in the last stretch of its course.</p><br>
<h3>Mountains</h3><br>
<p>The terrain of the Iberian Peninsula is largely mountainous. The major mountain systems are:</p><br>
<p>The Pyrenees and their foothills, the Pre-Pyrenees, crossing the isthmus of the peninsula so completely as to allow no passage except by mountain road, trail, coastal road or tunnel. Aneto in the Maladeta massif, at 3,404 m, is the highest point</p><br>
<p>The Cantabrian Mountains along the northern coast with the massive Picos de Europa. Torre de Cerredo, at 2,648 m, is the highest point</p><br>
<p>The Galicia/Trás-os-Montes Massif in the Northwest is made up of very old heavily eroded rocks. Pena Trevinca, at 2,127 m, is the highest point</p><br>
<p>The Sistema Ibérico, a complex system at the heart of the Peninsula, in its central/eastern region. It contains a great number of ranges and divides the watershed of the Tagus, Douro and Ebro rivers. Moncayo, at 2,313 m, is the highest point</p><br>
<p>The Sistema Central, dividing the Iberian Plateau into a northern and a southern half and stretching into Portugal (where the highest point of Continental Portugal (1,993 m) is located in the Serra da Estrela). Pico Almanzor in the Sierra de Gredos is the highest point, at 2,592 m</p><br>
<p>The Montes de Toledo, which also stretches into Portugal from the La Mancha natural region at the eastern end. Its highest point, at 1,603 m, is La Villuerca in the Sierra de Villuercas, Extremadura</p><br>
<p>The Sierra Morena, which divides the watershed of the Guadiana and Guadalquivir rivers. At 1,332 m, Bañuela is the highest point</p><br>
<p>The Baetic System, which stretches between Cádiz and Gibraltar and northeast towards Alicante Province. It is divided into three subsystems:</p><br>
<p>Prebaetic System, which begins west of the Sierra Sur de Jaén, reaching the Mediterranean Sea shores in Alicante Province. La Sagra is the highest point at 2,382 m.</p><br>
<p>Subbaetic System, which is in a central position within the Baetic Systems, stretching from Cape Trafalgar in Cádiz Province across Andalusia to the Region of Murcia. The highest point, at 2,027 m, is Peña de la Cruz in Sierra Arana.</p><br>
<p>Penibaetic System, located in the far southeastern area stretching between Gibraltar across the Mediterranean coastal Andalusian provinces. It includes the highest point in the peninsula, the 3,478 m high Mulhacén in the Sierra Nevada.</p><br>
<h3>Geology</h3><br>
<p>The Iberian Peninsula contains rocks of every geological period from the Ediacaran to the Recent, and almost every kind of rock is represented. World-class mineral deposits can also be found there. The core of the Iberian Peninsula consists of a Hercynian cratonic block known as the Iberian Massif. On the northeast, this is bounded by the Pyrenean fold belt, and on the southeast it is bounded by the Baetic System. These twofold chains are part of the Alpine belt. To the west, the peninsula is delimited by the continental boundary formed by the magma-poor opening of the Atlantic Ocean. The Hercynian Foldbelt is mostly buried by Mesozoic and Tertiary cover rocks to the east, but nevertheless outcrops through the Sistema Ibérico and the Catalan Mediterranean System.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>The Iberian peninsula has two dominant climate types. One of these is the oceanic climate seen in the Atlantic coastal region resulting in evenly temperatures with relatively cool summers. However, most of Portugal and Spain have a mediterranean climate with various precipitation and temperatures depending on latitude and position versus the sea. There are also more localized semi-arid climates in central Spain, with temperatures resembling a more continental mediterranean climate. In other extreme cases highland alpine climates such as in Sierra Nevada and areas with extremely low precitipation and desert climates nor semi-arid climates such as the Almería area, Murcia area and southern Alicante area. In the Spanish interior the hottest temperatures in Europe are found, with Córdoba averaging around 37 &deg;C in July. The Spanish mediterranean coast usually averages around 30 &deg;C in summer. In sharp contrast A Coruña at the northern tip of Galicia has a summer daytime high average at just below 23 &deg;C. This cool and wet summer climate is replicated throughout most of the northern coastline. Winter temperatures are more consistent throughout the peninsula, although frosts are common in the Spanish interior, even though daytime highs are usually above the freezing point. In Portugal, the warmest winters of the country are found in the area of Algarve, very similar to the ones from Huelva in Spain, while most of the Portuguese Atlantic coast has fresh and humid winters, similar to Galicia.</p><br>
<h2>Major modern countries</h2><br>
<p>Political divisions of the Iberian Peninsula sorted by area:</p><br>
<h3>Major urban areas</h3><br>
<p>The main metropolitan areas of the Iberian Peninsula are Madrid, Barcelona, Lisbon, Valencia, Porto, Seville, Bilbao, Braga, Málaga, Central Asturias (Gijón-Oviedo-Avilés), Alicante-Elche, Murcia and Coimbra.</p><br>
<h3>Major cities</h3><br>
<p>Various other notable cities are also present on the peninsula, such as: Elche (230,354), Oviedo (225,973), Badalona (220,977) and Terrassa (215 678) in Spain; and Braga (181,874), Amadora (175,558), Coimbra (102,455) and Setúbal (90,640) in Portugal.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<h3>Forests</h3><br>
<p>The woodlands of the Iberian Peninsula are distinct ecosystems. Although the various regions are each characterized by distinct vegetation, there are some similarities across the peninsula.</p><br>
<p>While the borders between these regions are not clearly defined, there is a mutual influence that makes it very hard to establish boundaries and some species find their optimal habitat in the intermediate areas.</p><br>
<h3>East Atlantic flyway</h3><br>
<p>The Iberian Peninsula in an important stopover on the East Atlantic flyway for birds migrating from northern Europe to Africa. For example, curlew sandpipers rest in the region of the Bay of Cádiz.</p><br>
<p>In addition to the birds migrating through, some seven million wading birds from the north spend the winter in the estuaries and wetlands of the Iberian Peninsula, mainly at locations on the Atlantic coast. In Galicia are Ría de Arousa (a home of grey plover), Ria de Ortigueira, Ria de Corme and Ria de Laxe. In Portugal, the Aveiro Lagoon hosts Recurvirostra avosetta, the common ringed plover, grey plover and little stint. Ribatejo Province on the Tagus supports Recurvirostra arosetta, grey plover, dunlin, bar-tailed godwit and common redshank. In the Sado Estuary are dunlin, Eurasian curlew, grey plover and common redshank. The Algarve hosts red knot, common greenshank and turnstone. The Guadalquivir Marshes region of Andalusia and the Salinas de Cádiz are especially rich in wintering wading birds: Kentish plover, common ringed plover, sanderling, and black-tailed godwit in addition to the others. And finally, the Ebro delta is home to all the species mentioned above.</p><br>
<h2>Languages</h2><br>
<p>With the sole exception of Basque, which is of unknown origin, all modern Iberian languages descend from Vulgar Latin and belong to the Western Romance languages. Throughout history (and pre-history), many different languages have been spoken in the Iberian Peninsula, contributing to the formation and differentiation of the contemporaneous languages of Iberia; however, most of them have become extinct or fallen into disuse. Basque is the only non-Indo-European surviving language in Iberia and Western Europe.</p><br>
<p>In modern times, Spanish (cf. 30 to 40 million speakers), Portuguese (cf. around 10 million speakers), Catalan (cf. around 9 million speakers), Galician (cf. around 3 million speakers) and Basque (cf. around 1 million speakers) are the most widely spoken languages in the Iberian Peninsula. Spanish and Portuguese have expanded beyond Iberia to the rest of world, becoming global languages.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>Major industries include mining, tourism, small farms, and fishing. Because the coast is so long, fishing is popular, especially sardines, tuna, cod and anchovies. Most of the mining happens in the Pyrenees mountains; iron, gold, coal, valuable minerals—such as lead, silver, zinc, and salt—are all mined.</p><br>
<p>Jamaica lies 90 mi south of Cuba and 118 mi west of Haiti. At its greatest extent, Jamaica is 146 mi long, and its width varies between 34 and. With an area of 10,911 km&sup2, Jamaica is the largest island of the Commonwealth Caribbean and the third largest of the Greater Antilles, after Cuba and Hispaniola. Many small islands are located along the south coast of Jamaica, such as the Port Royal Cays. Southwest of mainland Jamaica lies Pedro Bank, an area of shallow seas, with a number of cays , extending generally east to west for over 160 km. To the southeast lies Morant Bank, with the Morant Cays, 51 km from Morant Point, the easternmost point of mainland Jamaica. Alice Shoal, 260 km southwest of the main island of Jamaica, falls within the Jamaica–Colombia Joint Regime.</p><br>
<h2>Geology and landforms</h2><br>
<p>Jamaica and the other islands of the Antilles evolved from an arc of ancient volcanoes named rikitiki that rose from the sea millions of years ago. During periods of submersion, thick layers of limestone were laid down over the old igneous and metamorphic rock. In many places, the limestone is thousands of feet thick. The country can be divided into three landform regions: the central mountain chain formed by igneous and metamorphic rocks; the karst limestone hills in the Cockpit area; the low-lying coastal plains and interior valleys.</p><br>
<p>The highest area is the Blue Mountains aka Migos Mountains. These eastern mountains are formed by a central ridge of metamorphic rock running northwest to southeast from which many long spurs jut to the north and south. For a distance of over 3 km, the crest of the ridge exceeds 1,800 m. The highest point is Blue Mountain Peak at 7,402 ft. The Blue Mountains rise to these elevations from the coastal plain in the space of about 16 km, thus producing one of the steepest general gradients in the world. In this part of the country, the old metamorphic rock reveals itself through the surrounding limestone. To the north of the Blue Mountains lies the strongly tilted limestone plateau forming the John Crow Mountains. This range rises to elevations of over 1,000 m. To the west, in the central part of the country, are two high rolling plateaus: the Dry Harbour Mountains to the north and the Manchester Plateau to the south. Between the two, the land is rugged and here, also, the limestone layers are broken by the older rocks. Streams that rise in the region flow outward and sink soon after reaching the limestone layers.</p><br>
<p>The limestone plateau covers two-thirds of the country, so that karst formations dominate the island. Karst is formed by the erosion of the limestone in solution. Sinkholes, caves and caverns, disappearing streams, hummocky hills, and terra rosa (residual red) soils in the valleys are distinguishing features of a karst landscape; all these are present in Jamaica. To the west of the mountains is the rugged terrain of the Cockpit Country, one of the world&#39;s most dramatic examples of karst topography.</p><br>
<p>The Cockpit Country is pockmarked with steep-sided hollows, as much as 120 m deep in places, which are separated by conical hills and ridges. On the north, the main defining feature is the fault-based "Escarpment", a long ridge that extends from Flagstaff in the west, through Windsor in the centre, to Campbells and the start of the Barbecue Bottom Road (B10). The Barbecue Bottom Road, which runs north-south, high along the side of a deep, fault-based valley in the east, is the only drivable route across the Cockpit Country. However, there are two old, historical trails that cross further west, the Troy Trail, and the Quick Step Trail, both of which are seldom used and difficult to find. In the southwest, near Quick Step, is the district known as the "Land of Look Behind," so named because Spanish horsemen venturing into this region of hostile runaway slaves were said to have ridden two to a mount, one rider facing to the rear to keep a precautionary watch. Where the ridges between sinkholes in the plateau area have dissolved, flat-bottomed basins or valleys have been formed that are filled with terra rosa soils, some of the most productive on the island. The largest basin is the Vale of Clarendon, 80 km long and 32 km wide. Queen of Spains Valley, Nassau Valley, and Cave Valley were formed by the same process.</p><br>
<h2>Coasts</h2><br>
<p>The coastline of Jamaica is one of many contrasts. The northeast shore is severely eroded by the ocean. There are many small inlets in the rugged coastline, but no coastal plain of any extent. A narrow strip of plains along the northern coast offers calm seas and white sand beaches. Behind the beaches is a flat raised plain of uplifted coral reef.</p><br>
<p>The southern coast has small stretches of plains lined by black sand beaches. These are backed by cliffs of limestone where the plateaus end. In many stretches with no coastal plain, the cliffs drop 300 m straight to the sea. In the southwest, broad plains stretch inland for a number of kilometres. The Black River courses 70 km through the largest of these plains. The swamplands of the Great Morass and the Upper Morass fill much of the plains. The western coastline contains the island&#39;s finest beaches.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>Two types of climate are found in Jamaica. An upland tropical climate prevails on the windward side of the mountains, whereas a semiarid climate predominates on the leeward side. Warm trade winds from the east and northeast bring rainfall throughout the year. The rainfall is heaviest from May to October, with peaks in those two months. The average rainfall is 1,960 mm per year. Rainfall is much greater in the mountain areas facing the north and east, however. Where the higher elevations of the John Crow Mountains and the Blue Mountains catch the rain from the moisture-laden winds, rainfall exceeds 5,080 mm per year. Since the southwestern half of the island lies in the rain shadow of the mountains, it has a semiarid climate and receives fewer than 760 mm of rainfall annually.</p><br>
<p>Temperatures in Jamaica are fairly constant throughout the year, averaging 25 to 30 °C in the lowlands and 15 to 22 °C at higher elevations. Temperatures may dip to below 10 &deg;C at the peaks of the Blue Mountains. The island receives, in addition to the northeast trade winds, refreshing onshore breezes during the day and cooling offshore breezes at night. These are known on Jamaica as the "Doctor Breeze" and the "Undertaker&#39;s Breeze," respectively.</p><br>
<p>Jamaica lies in the Atlantic hurricane belt; as a result, the island sometimes experiences significant storm damage. Powerful hurricanes which have hit the island directly causing death and destruction include Hurricane Charlie in 1951 and Hurricane Gilbert in 1988. Several other powerful hurricanes have passed near to the island with damaging effects. In 1980, for example, Hurricane Allen destroyed nearly all Jamaica&#39;s banana crop. Hurricane Ivan (2004) swept past the island causing heavy damage and a number of deaths; in 2005, Hurricanes Dennis and Emily brought heavy rains to the island. A Category 4 hurricane, Hurricane Dean, caused some deaths and heavy damage to Jamaica in August 2007.</p><br>
<p>The first recorded hurricane to hit Jamaica was in 1519. The island has been struck by tropical cyclones regularly. During two of the coldest periods in the last 250 years (1780s and 1810s), the frequency of hurricanes in the Jamaica region was unusually high. Another peak of activity occurred in the 1910s, the coldest decade of the 20th century. On the other hand, hurricane formation was greatly diminished from 1968 to 1994, which for some reason coincides with the great Sahel drought.</p><br>
<h2>Vegetation and wildlife</h2><br>
<p>Although most of Jamaica&#39;s native vegetation has been stripped in order to make room for cultivation, some areas have been left virtually undisturbed since the time of Columbus. Indigenous vegetation can be found along the northern coast from Rio Bueno to Discovery Bay, in the highest parts of the Blue Mountains, and in the heart of the Cockpit Country.</p><br>
<p>As in the case of vegetation, considerable loss of wildlife has occurred beginning with the settlement of native peoples in the region millennia ago. For example, the only pinniped ever known to the Caribbean, the Caribbean monk seal once occurred in Jamaican waters and has now been driven to extinction.</p><br>
<p>Jan Mayen is a Norwegian volcanic island situated in the Arctic Ocean. It is 55 km long  and 373 km&sup2; in area, partly covered by glaciers . It has two parts: larger northeast Nord-Jan and smaller Sør-Jan, linked by a 2.5 km wide isthmus. It lies 600 km northeast of Iceland  NE of Kolbeinsey), 500 km east of central Greenland and 1,000 km west of the North Cape, Norway. The island is mountainous, the highest summit being the Beerenberg volcano in the north. The isthmus is the location of the two largest lakes of the island, Sørlaguna , and Nordlaguna . A third lake is called Ullerenglaguna . Jan Mayen was formed by the Jan Mayen hotspot.</p><br>
<p>Although administered separately, Svalbard and Jan Mayen are collectively assigned the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code "SJ".</p><br>
<h2>Natural resources</h2><br>
<p>Jan Mayen Island has one exploitable natural resource, gravel, from the site at Trongskaret. Other than this, economic activity is limited to providing services for employees of Norway&#39;s radio communications and meteorological stations located on the island. Jan Mayen has one unpaved airstrip, Jan Mayensfield, which is about 1,585 m long. The 124.1 km coast has no ports or harbours, only offshore anchorages.</p><br>
<p>There are important fishing resources, and the existence of Jan Mayen establishes a large Exclusive Economic Zone around it. A dispute between Norway and Denmark regarding the fishing exclusion zone between Jan Mayen and Greenland was settled in 1988 granting Denmark the greater area of sovereignty. Significant deposits of petroleum and natural gas are suspected by geologists to lie below Jan Mayen&#39;s surrounding seafloors.</p><br>
<h2>Status</h2><br>
<p>Jan Mayen Island is an integral part of the Kingdom of Norway. Since 1995, Jan Mayen has been administered by the County Governor (fylkesmann) of the northern Norwegian county of Nordland to which it is closest. However, some authority over Jan Mayen has been assigned to the station commander of the Norwegian Defence Logistics Organisation, a branch of the Norwegian Armed Forces.</p><br>
<h2>Society</h2><br>
<p>The only inhabitants on the island are personnel working for the Norwegian Armed Forces and the Norwegian Meteorological Institute. Eighteen people spend the winter on the island, but the population may double (35) during the summer, when heavy maintenance is performed. Personnel serve either six months or one year, and are exchanged twice a year in April and October. The support crew, including mechanics, cooks, and a nurse, are among the military personnel. The military personnel operated a Loran-C base, until it closed at the end of 2015. Both the LORAN transmitter and the meteorological station are located a few kilometres away from the settlement Olonkinbyen (Olonkin City), where all personnel live.</p><br>
<h3>Transport</h3><br>
<p>Transport to the island is provided by C-130 Hercules military transport planes operated by the Royal Norwegian Air Force that land at Jan Mayensfield&#39;s gravel runway. The planes fly in from Bodø Main Air Station eight times a year. Since the airport does not have any instrument landing capabilities, good visibility is required, and it is not uncommon for the planes to have to return to Bodø, two hours away, without landing. For heavy goods, freight ships visit during the summer, but since there are no harbours, the ships must anchor.</p><br>
<h3>Communication</h3><br>
<p>The island has no indigenous population, but is assigned the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code SJ (together with Svalbard). It uses the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD).no (.sj is allocated but not used) and data code JN. Jan Mayen has telephone and internet connection over satellite, using Norwegian telephone numbers (country code 47). Its amateur radio call sign prefix is JX. It has a postal code, NO-8099 JAN MAYEN, but delivery time varies, especially during the winter.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Unverified "discoveries" of a terra nullius</h3><br>
<p>Between the fifth and ninth centuries ( 400-900 AD/CE ), numerous communities of monks originating in west Ireland (Papar) navigated throughout the north Atlantic in leather boats, exploring and sometimes settling in distant islands where their monastic communities could be separated from close contact with others. Strong indicators exist of their presence in the Faroe Islands and Iceland before the arrival of the Vikings, and medieval chronicles such as the famous Voyage of Saint Brendan the Abbot testify to the extensive interest in exploration at the time. A modern-day trans-Atlantic journey proved the ability of the early navigators to reach all lands of the north Atlantic even farther from Ireland than Jan Mayen—and, given favorable winds, at a speed roughly equal to that of modern yachts. Though quite feasible, there is nevertheless no direct physical trace of medieval landings or settlement on Jan Mayen.</p><br>
<p>The land named Svalbarð ("cold coast") by the Vikings in the early medieval book Landnámabók may have been Jan Mayen (instead of Spitsbergen, renamed Svalbard by the Norwegians in modern times); the distance from Iceland to Svalbarð mentioned in this book is two days&#39; sailing (with favorable winds), consistent with the approximate 550 km to Jan Mayen and not with the minimum 1,550 km to Spitsbergen. However much Jan Mayen may have been known in Europe at that time, it was subsequently forgotten for some centuries.</p><br>
<p>In the 17th century, many claims of the islands rediscovery were made, spurred by the rivalry on the Arctic whaling grounds, and the island received many names. According to Thomas Edge, an early 17th-century whaling captain who was often inaccurate, "William Hudson" discovered the island in 1608 and named it "Hudsons Touches" (or "Tutches"). However, Henry Hudson could only have come by on his voyage in 1607 (if he had made an illogical detour) and he made no mention of it in his journal. Douglas Hunter, in Half Moon (2009), believes Hudson may not have mentioned his supposed discovery of the island because he was "loath to address a crew insurrection that might well have erupted at that time, when the men realized where he was trying to take them." This is, however, merely speculation on Hunter&#39;s part. There is absolutely no evidence to support such a claim.</p><br>
<p>According to William Scoresby (1820: p.154), referring to the mistaken belief that the Dutch had discovered the island in 1611, Hull whalers discovered the island "about the same time" and named it "Trinity Island". Muller (1874: pp.190–191) took this to mean they had come upon Jan Mayen in 1611 or 1612, which was repeated by many subsequent authors. There were, in fact, no Hull whalers in either of these years, the first Hull whaling expedition having been sent to the island only in 1616 (see below). As with the previous claim made by Edge, there is no cartographical or written proof for this supposed discovery.</p><br>
<h3>Jan Mayen during the Golden Age of Dutch exploration and discovery</h3><br>
<h4>First verified discoveries: mapping and naming</h4><br>
<p>The first verified discoveries of Jan Mayen, by three separate expeditions, occurred in the summer of 1614, probably within one month of each other. The Dutchman Fopp Gerritsz, whilst in command of a whaling expedition sent out by the Englishman John Clarke, of Dunkirk, claimed (in 1631) to have discovered the island on June 28 and named it "Isabella".</p><br>
<p>In January the Noordsche Compagnie (Northern Company), modelled on the Dutch East India Company, had been established to support Dutch whaling in the Arctic. Two of its ships, financed by merchants from Amsterdam and Enkhuizen, reached Jan Mayen in July 1614. The captains of these ships—Jan Jacobszoon May van Schellinkhout on the Gouden Cath (Golden Cat), and Jacob de Gouwenaer on the Orangienboom (Orange Tree)—named it Mr. Joris Eylant after the Dutch cartographer Joris Carolus who was on board and mapped the island. The captains acknowledged that a third Dutch ship, the Cleyn Swaentgen (Little Swan) captained by Jan Jansz Kerckhoff and financed by Noordsche Compagnie shareholders from Delft, had already been at the island when they arrived. They had assumed the latter, who named the island Maurits Eylandt (or Mauritius) after Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange, would report their discovery to the States General. However, the Delft merchants had decided to keep the discovery secret and returned in 1615 to hunt for their own profit. The ensuing dispute was only settled in 1617, though both companies were allowed to whale at Jan Mayen in the meantime.</p><br>
<p>In 1615, Robert Fotherby went ashore. Apparently thinking he had made a new discovery, he named the island "Sir Thomas Smith&#39;s Island" and the volcano "Mount Hakluyt". On a map of c. 1634, Jean Vrolicq renamed the island Île de Richelieu.</p><br>
<p>Jan Mayen first appeared on Willem Jansz Blaeu&#39;s 1620 edition map of Europe, originally published by Cornelis Doedz in 1606. Blaeu, who lived in Amsterdam, named it "Jan Mayen" after captain Jan Jacobszoon May of the Amsterdam-financed Gouden Cath. Blaeu made the first detailed map of the island in his famous "Zeespiegel" atlas of 1623, establishing its current name.</p><br>
<h4>Dutch whaling base</h4><br>
<p>From 1615 to 1638, Jan Mayen was used as a whaling base by the Dutch Noordsche Compagnie, which had been given a monopoly on whaling in the Arctic regions by the States General in 1614. Only two ships, one from the Noordsche Compagnie, and the other from the Delft merchants, were off Jan Mayen in 1615. The following year a score of vessels were sent to the island. The Noordsche Compagnie sent eight ships escorted by three warships under Jan Jacobsz. Schrobop; while the Delft merchants sent up five ships under Adriaen Dircksz. Leversteyn, son of one of the above merchants. There were also two ships from Dunkirk sent by John Clarke, as well as a ship each from London and Hull.</p><br>
<p>Heertje Jansz, master of the Hope, of Enkhuizen, wrote a day-by-day account of the season. The ships took two weeks to reach Jan Mayen, arriving early in June. On 15 June they met the two English ships, which Schrobop allowed to remain, on condition they gave half their catch to the Dutch. The ships from Dunkirk were given the same conditions. By late July the first ship had left with a full cargo of whale oil; the rest left early in August, several filled with oil.</p><br>
<p>That year 200 men were seasonally living and working on the island at six temporary whaling stations (spread along the northwest coast). During the first decade of whaling more than ten ships visited Jan Mayen each year, while in the second period (1624 and later) five to ten ships were sent. With the exception of a few ships from Dunkirk, which came to the island in 1617 and were either driven away or forced to give a third of their catch to the Dutch, only the Dutch and merchants from Hull sent up ships to Jan Mayen from 1616 onward. In 1624 ten wooden houses were built in South Bay. About this time the Dutch appear to have abandoned the temporary stations consisting of tents of sail and crude furnaces, replacing them with two semi-permanent stations with wooden storehouses and dwellings and large brick furnaces, one in the above-mentioned South Bay and the other in the North Bay. In 1628 two forts were built to protect the stations. Among the sailors active at Jan Mayen was the later admiral Michiel Adriaensz de Ruyter. In 1633, at the age of 26, he was for the first time listed as an officer aboard de Groene Leeuw (The Green Lion). He again went to Jan Mayen in 1635, aboard the same ship.</p><br>
<p>In 1632 the Noordsche Compagnie expelled the Danish-employed Basque whalers from Spitsbergen. In revenge, the latter sailed to Jan Mayen, where the Dutch had left for the winter, to plunder the Dutch equipment and burn down the settlements and factories. Captain Outger Jacobsz of Grootebroek was asked to stay the next winter (1633/34) on Jan Mayen with six shipmates to defend the island. While a group with the same task survived the winter on Spitsbergen, all seven on Jan Mayen died of scurvy or trichinosis (from eating raw polar bear meat) combined with the harsh conditions.</p><br>
<p>During the first phase of whaling the hauls were generally good, some exceptional. For example, Mathijs Jansz. Hoepstock caught 44 whales in Hoepstockbukta in 1619, which produced 2,300 casks of whale oil. During the second phase the hauls were much lower. While 1631 turned out to be a very good season, the following year, due to the weather and ice, only eight whales were caught. In 1633 eleven ships managed to catch just 47 whales; while a meager 42 were caught by the same number in 1635. The bowhead whale was locally hunted to near-extinction around 1640 (approximately 1000 had been killed and processed on the island), at which time Jan Mayen was abandoned and stayed uninhabited for two and a half centuries.</p><br>
<h3>19th and 20th centuries</h3><br>
<p>During the International Polar Year 1882-1883 the Austro-Hungarian North Pole Expedition stayed one year at Jan Mayen. The expedition performed extensive mapping of the area, their maps being of such quality that they were used until the 1950s. The Austrian polar station on Jan Mayen Island was built and equipped in 1882 fully at Count Wilczek&#39;s own expense.</p><br>
<p>Polar bears appear on Jan Mayen, although in diminished numbers compared with earlier times. Between 1900 and 1920, there were a number of Norwegian trappers spending winters on Jan Mayen, hunting Arctic foxes in addition to some polar bears. But the exploitation soon made the profits decline, and the hunting ended. Polar bears are genetically distinguishable in this region of the Arctic from those living elsewhere.</p><br>
<p>The League of Nations gave Norway jurisdiction over the island, and in 1921 Norway opened the first meteorological station. The Norwegian Meteorological Institute annexed the island for Norway in 1922 and the whole island in 1926 when Hallvard Devold was head of the weather observations base on the island. On 27 February 1930, the island was made de jure a part of the Kingdom of Norway.</p><br>
<p>During World War II, continental Norway was invaded and occupied by Germany in spring 1940. The four-man team on Jan Mayen stayed at their posts and in an act of defiance began sending their weather reports to the United Kingdom instead of Norway. The British codenamed Jan Mayen Island X and attempted to reinforce it with troops to counteract any German attack. The Norwegian patrol boat ran aground on one of the islands&#39; many uncharted lava reefs and the 68-man crew abandoned ship and joined the Norwegian team on shore. The British expedition commander, prompted by the loss of the gunboat, decided to abandon Jan Mayen until the following spring and radioed for a rescue ship. Within a few days a ship arrived and evacuated the four Norwegians and their would-be reinforcements after demolishing the weather station to prevent it from falling into German hands. The Germans attempted to land a weather team on the island on 16 November 1940. The German naval trawler carrying the team crashed on the rocks just off Jan Mayen after a patrolling British destroyer had picked them up on radar. This was not a coincidence as the German plan had been compromised from the beginning with British wireless interceptors of the Radio Security Service following the communications of the Abwehr (the German Intelligence service) concerning the operation and the destroyer had been waiting. Most of the crew struggled ashore and were taken prisoner by a landing party from the destroyer.</p><br>
<p>The Allies returned to the island on 10 March 1941, when the Norwegian ship Veslekari, escorted by the patrol boat Honningsvaag, dropped 12 Norwegian weathermen on the island. The team&#39;s radio transmissions soon betrayed its presence to the Axis, and German planes from Norway began to bomb and strafe Jan Mayen whenever weather would permit it, though they did little damage. Soon supplies and reinforcements arrived and even some anti-aircraft guns, giving the island a garrison of a few dozen weathermen and soldiers. By 1941, Germany had given up hope of evicting the Allies from the island and the constant air raids stopped.</p><br>
<p>On 7 August 1942, a German Focke-Wulf Fw 200 "Condor", probably on a mission to bomb the station, smashed into the nearby mountainside of Danielssenkrateret in fog, killing all 9 crewmembers.</p><br>
<p>In 1950, the wreck of another German plane with 4 crew members was discovered on the southwest side of the island.</p><br>
<p>In 1943, the Americans established a radio locating station named Atlantic City in the north to try to locate German radio bases in Greenland.</p><br>
<p>After the war, the meteorological station was located at Atlantic City, but moved in 1949 to a new location. Radio Jan Mayen also served as an important radio station for ship traffic in the Arctic Ocean. In 1959, NATO decided to build the LORAN-C network in the Atlantic Ocean, and one of the transmitters had to be on Jan Mayen. By 1961, the new military installations, including a new airfield, were operational.</p><br>
<p>For some time, scientists doubted if there could be any activity in the Beerenberg volcano, but in 1970 the volcano erupted, and added another 3 km&sup2; of land mass to the island during the three-to-four weeks it lasted. It had more eruptions in 1973 and 1985. During an eruption, the sea temperature around the island may increase from just above freezing to about 30 &deg;C.</p><br>
<p>Historic stations and huts on the island are Hoyberg, Vera, Olsbu, Puppebu (cabin), Gamlemetten or Gamlestasjonen (the old weather station), Jan Mayen Radio, Helenehytta, Margarethhytta, and Ulla (a cabin at the foot of the Beerenberg).</p><br>
<h2>Environment</h2><br>
<h3>Nature reserve</h3><br>
<p>A regulation dating from 2010 renders the island a nature reserve under Norwegian jurisdiction.</p><br>
<p>The aim of this regulation is to ensure the preservation of a pristine Arctic island and the marine life nearby, including the ocean floor. Landings at Jan Mayen can be done by boat. However, this is permitted only at a small part of the island, named Båtvika (Boat Bay). As there is no commercial airline operating at the island, one cannot get there by plane except by chartering one. Admission for landings by a charter plane has to be obtained in advance. Admission to stay on the island has to be obtained in advance, and is generally limited to a few days (or even hours). Putting up a tent or setting up camp is prohibited. There is a separate regulation for the stay of foreigners.</p><br>
<h3>Geography and geology</h3><br>
<p>Jan Mayen consists of two geographically distinct parts. Nord-Jan has a round shape and is dominated by the 2,277 m high Beerenberg volcano with its large ice cap (114.2 km&sup2;), which can be divided into twenty individual outlet glaciers. The largest of those is Sørbreen, with an area of 15 km&sup2; and a length of 8.7 km. South-Jan is narrow, comparatively flat and unglaciated. Its highest elevation is Rudolftoppen at 769 m. The station and living quarters are located on South-Jan. The island lies at the northern end of the Jan Mayen Microcontinent. The microcontinent was originally part of the Greenland Plate, but now forms part of the Eurasian Plate. In terms of land area, it is approximately twice the size of Lichtenstein with the addition of San Marino.</p><br>
<h3>Important Bird Area</h3><br>
<p>The island was identified as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because it is a breeding site for large numbers of seabirds, supporting populations of northern fulmars (78,000–160,000 pairs), little auks (10,000–100,000 pairs), thick-billed guillemot (74,000–147,000 pairs) and black guillemots (100–1,000 pairs).</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>Jan Mayen has a hyperoceanic polar climate, similar to Greenland and Svalbard, with a Köppen classification of ET. The Gulf Stream&#39;s powerful influence makes seasonal temperature variations extremely small considering the latitude of the island, with ranges from around 6 &deg;C in August to -6 &deg;C in February, but also makes the island extremely cloudy with little sunshine even during the continuous polar day. The deep snow cover prevents any permafrost from developing despite a mean annual temperature slightly below freezing.</p><br>
<p>Jarvis Island  is an uninhabited 1+3/4 square miles coral island located in the South Pacific Ocean at {{coord|0|22|S|160|01|W|type:isle_scale:30000_region:UM-86|display=inline,title}}, about halfway between Hawaii and the Cook Islands. It is an unincorporated, unorganized territory of the United States, administered by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service of the United States Department of the Interior as part of the National Wildlife Refuge system. Unlike most coral atolls, the lagoon on Jarvis is wholly dry.</p><br>
<p>Jarvis is one of the Line Islands and for statistical purposes is also grouped as one of the United States Minor Outlying Islands.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and ecology</h2><br>
<p>While a few offshore anchorage spots are marked on maps, Jarvis island has no ports or harbors, and swift currents are a hazard. There is a boat landing area in the middle of the western shoreline near a crumbling day beacon, and another near the southwest corner of the island. The center of Jarvis island is a dried lagoon where deep guano deposits accumulated, which were mined for about 20 years during the nineteenth century. The island has a tropical desert climate, with high daytime temperatures, constant wind, and strong sun. Nights, however, are quite cool. The ground is mostly sandy and reaches 23 feet (7 meters) at its highest point. Because of the island&#39;s distance from other large landmasses, the Jarvis Island high point is the 36th most isolated peak in the world. The low-lying coral island has long been noted as hard to sight from small ships and is surrounded by a narrow fringing reef.</p><br>
<p>Located only 25 mi south of the equator, Jarvis has no known natural freshwater lens and scant rainfall. This creates a very bleak, flat landscape without any plants larger than shrubs. There is no evidence that the island has ever supported a self-sustaining human population. Its sparse bunch grass, prostrate vines and low-growing shrubs are primarily a nesting, roosting, and foraging habitat for seabirds, shorebirds, and marine wildlife.</p><br>
<p>Jarvis Island is located in the Samoa Time Zone (UTC -11:00), the same time zone as American Samoa, Kingman Reef, Midway Atoll and Palmyra Atoll.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Discovery</h3><br>
<p>The island&#39;s first known sighting by Europeans was on August 21, 1821 by the British ship Eliza Francis (or Eliza Frances) owned by Edward, Thomas and William Jarvis and commanded by Captain Brown.</p><br>
<p>The US Exploring Expedition surveyed the island in 1841. In March 1857 the island was claimed for the United States under the Guano Islands Act and formally annexed on February 27, 1858.</p><br>
<h3>Nineteenth-century guano mining</h3><br>
<p>The American Guano Company, which was incorporated in 1857, established claims in respect of Baker Island and Jarvis Island which was recognized under the U.S. Guano Islands Act of 1856. Beginning in 1858, several support structures were built on Jarvis Island, along with a two-story, eight-room "superintendent&#39;s house" featuring an observation cupola and wide verandahs. Tram tracks were laid down for bringing mined guano to the western shore. One of the first loads was taken by Samuel Gardner Wilder.</p><br>
<p>For the following twenty-one years, Jarvis was commercially mined for guano, sent to the United States as fertilizer, but the island was abruptly abandoned in 1879, leaving behind about a dozen buildings and 8,000 tonnes of mined guano.</p><br>
<p>New Zealand entrepreneurs, including photographer Henry Winkelmann, then made unsuccessful attempts to continue guano extraction on Jarvis, and the two-story house was sporadically inhabited during the early 1880s. Squire Flockton was left alone on the island as caretaker for several months and committed suicide there in 1883, apparently from gin-fueled despair. His wooden grave marker was a carved plank which could be seen in the island&#39;s tiny four-grave cemetery for decades.</p><br>
<p>John T. Arundel & Co. resumed mining guano from 1886 to 1899. The United Kingdom annexed the island on June 3, 1889. Phosphate and copra entrepreneur John T. Arundel visited the island in 1909 on maiden voyage of the S.S. Ocean Queen and near the beach landing on the western shore members of the crew built a pyramidal day beacon made from slats of wood, which was painted white. and remained until at least 1942.</p><br>
<h3>Wreck of barquentine ''Amaranth''</h3><br>
<p>On August 30, 1913, the barquentine Amaranth (C. W. Nielson, captain) was carrying a cargo of coal from Newcastle, New South Wales to San Francisco when it wrecked on Jarvis&#39; southern shore. Ruins of ten wooden guano-mining buildings, the two-story house among them, could still be seen by the Amaranth crew, who left Jarvis aboard two lifeboats. One reached Pago Pago, American Samoa and the other made Apia in Western Samoa. The ship&#39;s scattered remains were noted and scavenged for many years, and rounded fragments of coal from the Amaranths hold were still being found on the south beach in the late 1930s.</p><br>
<h3>Millersville (1935–1942)</h3><br>
<p>Jarvis Island was reclaimed by the United States government and colonized from March 26, 1935 onwards, under the American Equatorial Islands Colonization Project (see also Howland Island and Baker Island). President Franklin D. Roosevelt assigned administration of the island to the U.S. Department of the Interior on May 13, 1936. Starting out as a cluster of large, open tents pitched next to the still-standing white wooden day beacon, the Millersville settlement on the island&#39;s western shore was named after a bureaucrat with the United States Department of Air Commerce. The settlement grew into a group of shacks built mostly with wreckage from the Amaranth (lumber from which was also used by the young Hawaiian colonists to build surfboards), but later, stone and wood dwellings were built and equipped with refrigeration, radio equipment, and a weather station. A crude aircraft landing area was cleared on the northeast side of the island, and a T-shaped marker which was intended to be seen from the air was made from gathered stones, but no airplane is known to have ever landed there.</p><br>
<p>At the beginning of World War II, an Imperial Japanese Navy submarine surfaced off the west coast of the Island. Believing that it was a U.S. Navy submarine which had come to fetch them, the four young colonists rushed down the steep western beach in front of Millersville towards the shore. The submarine answered their waves with fire from its deck gun, but no one was hurt in the attack. On February 7, 1942, the USCGC Taney evacuated the colonists, then shelled and burned the dwellings. The roughly cleared landing area on the island&#39;s northeast end was later shelled by the Japanese, leaving crater holes.</p><br>
<h3>International Geophysical Year</h3><br>
<p>Jarvis was visited by scientists during the International Geophysical Year from July 1957 until November 1958. In January 1958 all scattered building ruins from both the nineteenth century guano diggings and the 1935–1942 colonization attempt were swept away without a trace by a severe storm which lasted several days and was witnessed by the scientists. When the IGY research project ended the island was abandoned again. By the early 1960s a few sheds, a century of accumulated trash, the scientists&#39; house from the late 1950s and a solid, short lighthouse-like day beacon built two decades before were the only signs of human habitation on Jarvis.</p><br>
<h2>National Wildlife Refuge</h2><br>
<p>On June 27, 1974, Secretary of the Interior Rogers Morton created Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge which was expanded in 2009 to add submerged lands within 12 nmi of the island. The refuge now includes 1,273 acre of land and 428,580 acre of water. Along with six other islands, the island was administered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as part of the Pacific Remote Islands National Wildlife Refuge Complex. In January 2009, that entity was upgraded to the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument by President George W. Bush.</p><br>
<p>A feral cat population, descendants of cats likely brought by colonists in the 1930s, wrought disruption to the island&#39;s wildlife and vegetation. These cats were removed through efforts which began in the mid-1960s and lasted until 1990 when they were completely eradicated. Nineteenth-century tram track remains can be seen in the dried lagoon bed at the island&#39;s center and the late 1930s-era lighthouse-shaped day beacon still stands on the western shore at the site of Millersville.</p><br>
<p>Public entry to Jarvis Island requires a special-use permit and is generally restricted to scientists and educators. The island is visited periodically by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the United States Coast Guard.</p><br>
<p>This article describes the geography of Jersey, an island territory in the English Channel. The island of Jersey has an area of 119 square kilometres, with 70 kilometres of coastline. Jersey claims a territorial sea of 3 nmi and an exclusive fishing zone of 12 nmi.</p><br>
<p>Jersey is the largest and southernmost of the Channel Islands. It is located north of Brittany and west of the Cotentin Peninsula in Normandy. About 30% of the population of the island is concentrated in Saint Helier, which is a parish and the capital town of the island.</p><br>
<h2>Physical geography</h2><br>
<p>Besides the main island, the bailiwick includes other islets and reefs with no permanent population: Les Écréhous, Les Minquiers, Les Pierres de Lecq, Les Dirouilles.</p><br>
<p>The highest point in the island is Les Platons on the north coast, at 136 m. Parts of the parish of St Clement in the south were previously below sea-level but the construction of a seawall and infilling of low land has probably left only a few pockets of land below mean sea level. The terrain is generally low-lying on the south coast, with some rocky headlands, rising gradually to rugged cliffs along the north coast. On the west coast there are sand dunes. Small valleys run north to south across the island. Very large tidal variation exposes large expanses of sand and rock to the southeast at low tide.</p><br>
<p>Snow falls rarely in Jersey; some years will pass with no snow fall at all.</p><br>
<h3>Natural resources</h3><br>
<p>The main natural resource on this island is arable land. 66% of the island&#39;s land is used as such, and the remaining 34% is used for other purposes.</p><br>
<h3>Environment</h3><br>
<p>Current environmental issues for Jersey include waste disposal, air pollution and traffic.</p><br>
<p>Juan de Nova Island , Île Juan de Nova ), also known as Saint-Christophe, is a French 4.4 km&sup2; low, flat, tropical island in the narrowest part of the Mozambique Channel, about one-third of the way between Madagascar and Mozambique. Anchorage is possible off the northeast of the island which also has a 1,300 m airstrip. Administratively, the island is one of the Scattered islands in the Indian Ocean, a district of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands.</p><br>
<p>The island is garrisoned by French troops from Réunion and has a weather station.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Juan de Nova, about 6 km long and 1.6 km at its widest, is a nature reserve surrounded by reefs which enclose an area (not a true lagoon like in an atoll) of roughly 40 km&sup2;. Forests, mainly of Casuarinaceae, cover about half the island. Sea turtles nest on the beaches around the island.</p><br>
<h3>Important Bird Area</h3><br>
<p>The island has been identified as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because it supports a very large colony of sooty terns, with up to 100,000 breeding pairs. It also has a much smaller colony of greater crested terns (with at least 50 breeding pairs recorded in 1994). Of at least seven species of landbirds present, most are probably introduced.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The island is named after the Spanish version of a Galician admiral in the service of Portugal (Xoán da Nova or de Novoa in Galician; João da Nova in Portuguese) who came across the island in 1501. The island had never been inhabited when it became a possession of France in 1897. In 1921, France decided to transfer the administration of Juan de Nova from Paris to Tananarive in its colony of Madagascar and Dependencies. Before the independence of Madagascar, France transferred the administration to Saint-Pierre on Réunion Island. Madagascar became independent in 1960 and claims sovereignty over the island since 1972. Guano (phosphate) deposits were exploited from the start of the 20th century until 1970. The island was abandoned during World War II and was visited by German submariners. Installations, including a hangar, rail lines, houses and a jetty are in ruins.</p><br>
<h3>Wrecks</h3><br>
<p>The island lies on the sea route between South Africa and the northern tip of Madagascar. It is affected by strong currents, and has become the site of numerous wrecks. Most visible are the remains of the SS Tottenham which ran onto the southern fringing reef in 1911.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>Kingman Reef is a largely submerged, uninhabited triangular shaped reef, 9.5 nmi east-west and 5 nmi north-south, located in the North Pacific Ocean, roughly halfway between the Hawaiian Islands and American Samoa at {{coord|6|23|N|162|25|W|region:UM_type:isle_scale:50000}}. It is the northernmost of the Northern Line Islands and lies 36 nmi northwest of the next closest island , and 930 nmi south of Honolulu.</p><br>
<p>The reef encloses a lagoon up to 270 ft deep in its western part. The total area within the outer rim of the reef is 29 mi2. There are two small strips of dry land composed of coral rubble and giant clamshells on the eastern rim with areas of 2 and having a coastline of 2 mi.</p><br>
<h2>Political status</h2><br>
<p>Kingman Reef has the status of an unincorporated territory of the United States, administered from Washington, D.C. by the U.S. Department of Interior. The atoll is closed to the public. For statistical purposes, Kingman Reef is grouped as part of the United States Minor Outlying Islands. In January 2009, Kingman Reef was designated a marine national monument.</p><br>
<p>The pre-20th century names Danger Reef, Caldew Reef, Maria Shoal and Crane Shoal refer to this atoll, which by then was entirely submerged at high tide. Thomas Hale Streets described its state in the 1870s, when it had:</p><br>
<p>... hardly, as yet, assumed the distinctive features of an island. It is entirely under water at high tide, and but a few coral heads project here and there above the surface at low water. In the course of time, however, it will undoubtedly be added to the northern Line Islands.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Kingman Reef was discovered by the American Captain Edmund Fanning of the ship Betsey on June 14, 1798. Captain W. E. Kingman (whose name the island bears) described it on November 29, 1853. Kingman Reef was claimed in 1860 by the United States Guano Company, under the name "Danger Reef". This claim was made under by the Guano Islands Act of 1856 although there is no evidence that guano existed or was ever mined on Kingman Reef.</p><br>
<p>Lorrin A. Thurston formally annexed Kingman to the United States on May 10, 1922, by reading this declaration on shore:</p><br>
<p>Be it known to all people: That on the tenth of May, A.D. 1922, the undersigned agent of the Island of Palmyra Copra Co., Ltd., landed from the motorship Palmyra doth, on this tenth day of May, A.D. 1922, take formal possession of this island, called Kingman Reef, situated in longitude 162 degrees 18&#39; west and 6 degrees 23&#39; north, on behalf of the United States of America and claim the same for said company.</p><br>
<p>On December 29, 1934, the US Navy assumed jurisdiction over Kingman Reef. The lagoon was used in 1937 and 1938 as a halfway station between Hawai&#39;i and American Samoa by Pan American Airways flying boats (Sikorsky S-42B). Pan Am wanted to expand flights into the Pacific and include Australia and New Zealand to their "Clipper" air routes. In 1935 it was decided that the lagoon at Kingman Reef was suitable for overnight stops en route from the U.S. to New Zealand via Samoa. Kingman Reef became the stopover to and from Pago Pago, American Samoa, located 1,600 mi further south. A supply ship, the North Wind, was stationed at Kingman Reef to provide fuel, lodging, and meals. The S42B Pan American Clipper II, piloted by Captain Edwin Musick, landed at Kingman on its first flight on March 23, 1937. Several successful flights followed, but the flight on January 11, 1938 ended in tragedy. Shortly after the early morning take off from Pago Pago, bound for New Zealand, the Clipper exploded. The right outboard engine had developed an oil leak and the plane burst into flames while dumping fuel; there were no survivors. As a result of the tragedy, Pan Am ended flights to New Zealand via Kingman Reef and Pago Pago. A new route was established in July 1940 by way of Canton Island and New Caledonia.</p><br>
<p>On February 14, 1941, President Franklin Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8682 to create naval defenses areas in the central Pacific territories. The proclamation established "Kingman Reef Naval Defensive Sea Area" which encompassed the territorial waters between the extreme high-water marks and the three-mile marine boundaries surrounding the atoll. "Kingman Naval Airspace Reservation" was also established to restrict access to the airspace over the naval defense sea area. Only U.S. government ships and aircraft were permitted to enter the naval defense areas at Kingman Reef unless authorized by the Secretary of the Navy.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>Kingman Reef supports a vast variety of marine life. Giant clams are abundant in the shallows, and there are approximately 38 genera and 130 species of stony corals present on the reef. This is more than three times the species diversity of corals found in the main Hawaiian Islands. The ecosystem of the reef and its subsequent food chain are known for the distinct quality of being primarily predator-based. Sharks comprised 74% of the top predator biomass (329 g m-2) at Kingman Reef and 57% at Palmyra Atoll (97 g m-2), low shark numbers have been observed at Tabuaeran and Kiritimati. The percentage of the total fish biomass on the reef is made up of 85% apex predators, creating a high level of competition for food and nutrients among local organisms — particularly sharks, jacks, and other carnivores. The threatened green sea turtles that frequent nearby Palmyra Atoll travel to Kingman Reef to forage and bask on the coral rubble spits at low tide.</p><br>
<p>However, above sea level, the reef is usually barren of macroorganisms. Mainly constructed of dead and dried coral skeletons, providing only calcite as a source of nutrients, the small and narrow strips of dry land are only habitable by a handful of species for short periods of time. Most flora which begin to grow above water — primarily coconut palms — die out quickly due to the fierce tides and lack of resources necessary to sustain plant life.</p><br>
<h2>National Wildlife Refuge</h2><br>
<p>On September 1, 2000, the Navy relinquished its control over Kingman Reef to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. On January 18, 2001 Secretary of the Interior Bruce Babbitt created the Kingman Reef National Wildlife Refuge during his final days in office with Secretary&#39;s Order 3223. It is composed of the emergent coral rubble spits and all waters out to 12 nmi. While there are only 3 acre of land, 483,754 acre of water area is included in the Refuge. Along with six other islands, the reef was administered as part of the Pacific Remote Islands National Wildlife Refuge Complex. In January 2009, that entity was upgraded to the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument by President George W. Bush.</p><br>
<h2>Amateur radio expeditions</h2><br>
<p>Since the early 1940s, Kingman Reef has had very little human contact, though amateur radio operators from around the world have occasionally visited the reef to put it "on the air" in what is known as a DX-pedition. In 1974, a group of amateurs using the callsign KP6KR sailed to the reef and set up a temporary radio station and antenna. Other groups visited the island in subsequent years, including 1977, 1980, 1981, 1988 and 1993.</p><br>
<p>Most recently, a group of 15 amateur radio operators from the Palmyra DX Group visited the reef in October 2000. Using the FCC-issued special event callsign K5K, the group made more than 80,000 individual contacts with amateurs around the world over a period of 10 days.</p><br>
<p>Between November 15, 1945, and March 28, 2016, Kingman Reef was considered a discrete entity for the purpose of earning awards such as the DX Century Club. A video shot by amateur radio operators traveling to the K5P DX-pedition on Palmyra in January 2016 appears to show Kingman Reef mostly awash, raising questions as to whether a future activation of Kingman Reef would be possible.</p><br>
<p>On March 28, 2016, the ARRL DXCC desk deleted Kingman Reef from the list of collectable entities effective March 29, 2016, and deeming Kingman a part of the Palmyra and Jarvis entity due to proximity of the islands and common administration of the islands by the Fish and Wildlife Service.</p><br>
<p>The Kattegat  is a 30,000 km&sup2; sea area bounded by the Jutlandic peninsula in the west, the Danish straits islands of Denmark to the south and the provinces of Västergötland, Scania, Halland and Bohuslän in Sweden in the east. The Baltic Sea drains into the Kattegat through the Danish Straits. The sea area is a continuation of the Skagerrak and may be seen as a bay of the Baltic Sea or the North Sea or, as in traditional Scandinavian usage, neither of these.</p><br>
<p>The Kattegat is a rather shallow sea and can be very difficult and dangerous to navigate, due to the many sandy and stony reefs and tricky currents that often shift. In modern times, artificial seabed channels have been dug, many reefs have been dredged by either sand pumping or stone fishing, and a well-developed light signaling network has been installed, to safeguard the very heavy international traffic of this small sea.</p><br>
<p>There are several large cities and major ports in the Kattegat, including Gothenburg, Aarhus, Aalborg, Halmstad and Frederikshavn, mentioned by descending size and importance.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>According to the definition established in a 1932 convention signed by Denmark, Norway and Sweden (registered in the League of Nations Treaty Series 1933–1934), the northern boundary between the Kattegat and Skagerrak is found at the northernmost point of Skagen on Jutland, while the southern boundary towards Øresund is found at the tip of Kullen Peninsula in Scania.</p><br>
<p>Major waterways that drain into the Kattegat are the rivers of Göta älv at Gothenburg, together with the Lagan, Nissan, Ätran and Viskan in the province of Halland on the Swedish side, and the river of Gudenå in Jutland, in Denmark.</p><br>
<p>The main islands of the Kattegat are Samsø, Læsø and Anholt; the latter two are, due to their relatively dry climate, situated in what is called "the Danish desert belt".</p><br>
<p>A number of noteworthy coastal areas abut the Kattegat, including the Kullaberg Nature Reserve in Scania, Sweden, which contains a number of rare species and a scenic rocky shore, the town of Mölle, which has a picturesque harbour and views into the Kullaberg, and Skagen at the northern tip of Denmark.</p><br>
<p>Since the 1950s, a bridge project usually referred to as Kattegatbroen (The Kattegat Bridge) connecting Jutland and Zealand across the Kattegat has been considered. Since the late 2000s, the project has seen a renewed interest from several influential politicians in Denmark. The bridge is usually envisioned as connecting Hov (a village south of Odder in the Aarhus area) with Samsø and Kalundborg.</p><br>
<h3>Extent</h3><br>
<p>The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the "Kattegat, Sound and Belts" (that is, the Kattegat, Øresund, Great Belt, and Little Belt) as follows:</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>According to Den Store Danske Encyklopædi and Nudansk Ordbog, the name derives from the Dutch words kat (cat) and gat (hole, gate). It derives from late medieval navigation jargon, in which captains of the Hanseatic trading fleets would compare the Danish Straits to a hole so narrow that even a cat would have difficulty squeezing its way through, on account of the many reefs and shallow waters. At one point, the passable waters were a mere 3.84 km wide. The name of the Copenhagen street Kattesundet has a comparable etymological meaning, namely "narrow passage".</p><br>
<p>An archaic name for both the Skagerrak and Kattegat was the Norwegian Sea or Jutland Sea (Knýtlinga saga mentions the name Jótlandshaf). Its ancient Latin name was Sinus Codanus.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Control of the Kattegat, and access to it, have been important throughout the history of international seafaring. Until the completion of the Eider Canal in 1784, the Kattegat was the only sea route into and out of the Baltic region.</p><br>
<p>Beginning in 1429 in the Middle Ages, the Danish royal family – and later the state of Denmark – prospered greatly from the Sound dues, a toll charged for passage through the Øresund, while Copenhagen provided shelter, trade and repair opportunities and protection from piracy. The dues were eventually lifted in 1857.</p><br>
<h2>Biology</h2><br>
<p>In the Kattegat, the salinity has a pronounced two-layer structure. The upper layer has a salinity between 18‰ and 26‰ and the lower layer – separated by a strong halocline at around 15 m – has a salinity between 32‰ and 34‰. The lower layer consists of inflowing seawater from the Skagerrak, with a salinity on level with most other coastal seawaters, while the upper layer consists of inflowing seawater from the Baltic Sea and has a much lower salinity, comparable to brackish water, but still a great deal higher than the rest of the Baltic sea. These two opposing flows transport a net surplus of 475 km3 seawater from the Baltic to the Skagerrak every year. During stronger winds, the layers in the Kattegat are completely mixed in some places, such as the Great Belt, so the overall salinity is very variable in this small sea. This sets some unique conditions for the sealife here.</p><br>
<p>Cold seeps, locally known as bubbling reefs (boblerev), are found in the northern Kattegat. Unlike cold seeps in most other places (including the North Sea and Skagerrak), the Kattegat bubbling reefs are at relatively shallow depths, generally between 0 and(-) below the surface. The seeps rely on methane deposited during the Eemian period and during calm weather the bubbles can sometimes be seen on the water surface. Carbonate cementation and lithification form slaps or pillars up to 4 m tall, and support a rich biodiversity. Because of their unique status, the Kattegat bubbling reefs receive a level of protection and are recognized as a Natura 2000 habitat (type 1180) by the European Union (EU).</p><br>
<h3>Ecological collapse</h3><br>
<p>The Kattegat was one of the first marine dead zones to be noted in the 1970s, when scientists began studying how intensive industrial activities affected the natural world. In recent years studies and research, has provided much insight into processes like eutrophication, and how to deal with it. Denmark and the EU have initiated costly and far-reaching domestic projects in order to stop, repair and prevent these environmentally destructive and economically damaging processes, since the first Action Plan for the Aquatic Environment in 1985, and are now busy implementing the fourth Action Plan. The action plans sums up a broad range of initiatives and includes the so-called Nitrate Directives. The action plans have generally been viewed as a success, although the work is not finished and all goals are not completely met yet.</p><br>
<h2>Protections and regulation</h2><br>
<p>Due to the very heavy sea traffic and many large coastal settlements, the Kattegat has been designated as a Sulphur Emission Control Area as part of the Baltic Sea since 2006. The benchmark for sulphur in fuels was recently lowered to 0.1%, to be effectuated from 1 January 2015.</p><br>
<p>Several larger areas of the Kattegat are designated as Natura 2000 and under various bird protections such as the Ramsar Convention. The remaining larger shallow reefs, are among the protections, as they are important spawning and feeding grounds for fish and marine mammals and they support a thriving but threatened biodiversity. Protected areas includes:</p><br>
<p>Grenen</p><br>
<p>The Bay of Aalborg, comprising a 1,774 km&sup2; shallow sea area.</p><br>
<p>Beach meadows on Læsø and the stony reefs south of the island</p><br>
<p>Anholt and the sea north of the island.</p><br>
<p>The Nordre älv estuary north of Gothenburg. An important spot for migratory birds and fish.</p><br>
<p>The Vrångö archipelago (Swedish: Vrångöskärgården), part of the Archipelago of Gothenburg. An important reproduction area for seabirds and seals.</p><br>
<p>Kungsbacka Fjord. A shallow water fjord between Gothenburg and Varberg, including important salt marshes.</p><br>
<p>Hovs Hallar</p><br>
<p>Kullaberg Nature Reserve</p><br>
<p>The Kara Sea  is part of the Arctic Ocean north of Siberia. It is separated from the Barents Sea to the west by the Kara Strait and Novaya Zemlya, and the Laptev Sea to the east by the Severnaya Zemlya archipelago. It is named for the Kara River , which is now relatively insignificant but which played an important role in the Russian conquest of northern Siberia. The Kara River name is derived from Nenets word meaning "hummocked ice".</p><br>
<p>The Kara Sea&#39;s northern limit is marked geographically by a line running from Cape Kohlsaat in Graham Bell Island, Franz Josef Land, to Cape Molotov (Arctic Cape), the northernmost point of Komsomolets Island in Severnaya Zemlya.</p><br>
<p>The Kara Sea is roughly 1,450 kilometres long and 970 kilometres wide with an area of around 880,000 km² and a mean depth of 110 m.</p><br>
<p>Compared to the Barents Sea, which receives relatively warm currents from the Atlantic, the Kara Sea is much colder, remaining frozen for over nine months a year.</p><br>
<p>The Kara receives a large amount of fresh water from the Ob, Yenisei, Pyasina, and Taimyra rivers, so its salinity is variable.</p><br>
<p>Its main ports are Novy Port and Dikson and it is important as a fishing ground although the sea is ice-bound for all but two months of the year. Significant discoveries of petroleum and natural gas, the East-Prinovozemelsky field, an extension of the West Siberian Oil Basin, have been made but have not yet been developed. In 2014, US government sanctions resulted in Exxon having until September 26 to discontinue its operations in the Kara Sea.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<h3>Extent</h3><br>
<p>The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Kara Sea as follows:</p><br>
<h3>Islands</h3><br>
<p>There are many islands and island groups in the Kara Sea. Unlike the other marginal seas of the Arctic, where most islands lie along the coasts, in the Kara Sea many islands, like the Arkticheskiy Institut Islands, the Izvesti Tsik Islands, the Kirov Islands, Uedineniya or Lonely Island, Vize Island, and Voronina Island are located in the open sea of its central regions.</p><br>
<p>The largest group in the Kara Sea is by far the Nordenskiöld Archipelago, with five large subgroups and over ninety islands. Other important islands in the Kara Sea are Bely Island, Dikson Island, Taymyr Island, the Kamennyye Islands and Oleni Island. Despite the high latitude all islands are unglaciated except for Ushakov Island at the extreme northern limit of the Kara Sea.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Kara Sea was formerly known as Oceanus Scythicus or Mare Glaciale and it appears with these names in 16th century maps. Since it is closed by ice most of the year it remained largely unexplored until the late nineteenth century.</p><br>
<p>In 1556 Stephen Borough sailed in the Searchthrift to try to reach the Ob River, but he was stopped by ice and fog at the entrance to the Kara Sea. Not until 1580 did another English expedition, under Arthur Pet and Charles Jackman, attempt its passage. They too failed to penetrate it, and England lost interest in searching for the Northeast Passage.</p><br>
<p>In 1736–1737 Russian Admiral Stepan Malygin undertook a voyage from Dolgy Island in the Barents Sea. The two ships in this early expedition were the Perviy, under Malygin&#39;s command and the Vtoroy under Captain A. Skuratov. After entering the little-explored Kara Sea, they sailed to the mouth of the Ob River. Malygin took careful observations of these hitherto almost unknown areas of the Russian Arctic coastline. With this knowledge he was able to draw the first somewhat accurate map of the Arctic shores between the Pechora River and the Ob River.</p><br>
<p>In 1878, Finnish explorer Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld on ship Vega sailed across the Kara Sea from Gothenburg, along the coast of Siberia, and despite the ice packs, got to 180° longitude by early September. Frozen in for the winter in the Chukchi Sea, Nordenskiöld waited and bartered with the local Chukchi people. The following July, the Vega was freed from the ice, and continued to Yokohama, Japan. He became the first to force the Northeast Passage. The largest group of islands in the Kara Sea, the Nordenskiöld Archipelago, has been named in his honour. The year 1912 was a tragic one for Russian explorers in the Kara Sea. In that fateful year unbroken consolidated ice blocked the way for the Northern Sea Route and three expeditions that had to cross the Kara Sea became trapped and failed: Sedovs on vessel St. Foka, Brusilovs on the St. Anna, and Rusanovs on the Gercules. Georgy Sedov intended to reach Franz Josef Land on ship, leave a depot over there, and sledge to the pole. Due to the heavy ice the vessel could only reach Novaya Zemlya the first summer and wintered in Franz Josef Land. In February 1914 Sedov headed to the North Pole with two sailors and three sledges, but he fell ill and died on Rudolf Island. Georgy Brusilov attempted to navigate the Northeast Passage, was trapped in the Kara Sea, and drifted northward for more than two years reaching latitude 83° 17 N. Thirteen men, headed by Valerian Albanov, left the vessel and started across the ice to Franz Josef Land, but only Albanov and one sailor (Alexander Konrad) survived after a gruesome three-month ordeal. The survivors brought the ship log of St. Anna, the map of her drift, and daily meteorological records, but the destiny of those who stayed on board remains unknown. In the same year the expedition of Vladimir Rusanov was lost in the Kara Sea. The prolonged absence of those three expeditions stirred public attention, and a few small rescue expeditions were launched, including Jan Nagórski&#39;s five air flights over the sea and ice from the NW coast of Novaya Zemlya.</p><br>
<p>After the Russian Revolution in 1917, the scale and scope of exploration of the Kara Sea increased greatly as part of the work of developing the Northern Sea Route. Polar stations, of which five already existed in 1917, increased in number, providing meteorologic, ice reconnaissance, and radio facilities. By 1932 there were 24 stations, by 1948 about 80, and by the 1970s more than 100. The use of icebreakers and, later, aircraft as platforms for scientific work were developed. In 1929 and 1930 the Icebreaker Sedov carried groups of scientists to Severnaya Zemlya, the last major piece of unsurveyed territory in the Soviet Arctic; the archipelago was completely mapped under Georgy Ushakov between 1930 and 1932.</p><br>
<p>Particularly worth noting are three cruises of the Icebreaker Sadko, which went farther north than most; in 1935 and 1936 the last unexplored areas in the northern Kara Sea were examined and small and elusive Ushakov Island was discovered.</p><br>
<p>In the summer of 1942, German Kriegsmarine warships and submarines entered the Kara Sea to destroy as many Russian vessels as possible. This naval campaign was named "Operation Wunderland". Its success was limited by the presence of ice floes, as well as bad weather and fog. These effectively protected the Soviet ships, preventing the damage that could have been inflicted on the Soviet fleet under fair weather conditions.</p><br>
<p>In October 2010, the Russian government awarded a license to Russian oil company Rosneft for developing the East-Prinovozemelsky oil and gas structure in the Kara Sea.</p><br>
<h2>Nuclear dumping</h2><br>
<p>There is concern about radioactive contamination from nuclear waste the former Soviet Union dumped in the sea and the effect this will have on the marine environment. According to an official "White Paper" report compiled and released by the Russian government in March 1993, the Soviet Union dumped six nuclear submarine reactors and ten nuclear reactors into the Kara Sea between 1965–1988. Solid high and low-level wastes unloaded from Northern Fleet nuclear submarines during reactor refuelings, were dumped in the Kara Sea, mainly in the shallow fjords of Novaya Zemlya, where the depths of the dumping sites range from 12 to 135 meters, and in the Novaya Zemlya Trough at depths of up to 380 meters. Liquid low-level wastes were released in the open Barents and Kara Seas. A subsequent appraisal by the International Atomic Energy Agency showed that releases are low and localized from the 16 naval reactors (reported by the IAEA as having come from seven submarines and the icebreaker Lenin) which were dumped at five sites in the Kara Sea. Most of the dumped reactors had suffered an accident.</p><br>
<p>The Soviet submarine K-27 was scuttled in Stepovogo Bay with its two reactors filled with spent nuclear fuel. At a seminar in February 2012 it was revealed that the reactors on board the submarine could re-achieve criticality and explode (a buildup of heat leading to a steam explosion vs. nuclear). The catalogue of waste dumped at sea by the Soviets, according to documents seen by Bellona, includes some 17,000 containers of radioactive waste, 19 ships containing radioactive waste, 14 nuclear reactors, including five that still contain spent nuclear fuel; 735 other pieces of radioactively contaminated heavy machinery, and the K-27 nuclear submarine with its two reactors loaded with nuclear fuel.</p><br>
<h2>Nature reserve</h2><br>
<p>The Great Arctic State Nature Reserve—the largest nature reserve of Russia—was founded on May 11, 1993 by Resolution No. 431 of the Government of the Russian Federation (RF). The Kara Sea Islands section (4,000 km²) of the Great Arctic Nature Reserve includes: the Sergei Kirov Archipelago, the Voronina Island, the Izvestiy TSIK Islands, the Arctic Institute Islands, the Svordrup Island, Uedineniya (Ensomheden) and a number of smaller islands. This section represents rather fully the natural and biological diversity of Arctic sea islands of the eastern part of the Kara Sea.</p><br>
<p>Nearby, the Franz Josef Land and Severny Island in northern Novaya Zemlya are also registered as a sanctuary, the Russian Arctic National Park.</p><br>
<p>Kyushu is the third largest island of Japan and most southwesterly of its four main islands. Its alternative ancient names include "Nine Provinces", "West of the Pacified Area", and "Island of Tsukushi". The historical regional name Saikaidō referred to Kyushu and its surrounding islands.</p><br>
<p>In the 8th century Taihō Code reforms, Dazaifu was established as a special administrative term for the region.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The island is mountainous, and Japan&#39;s most active volcano, Mt Aso at 1,591 m, is on Kyushu. There are many other signs of tectonic activity, including numerous areas of hot springs. The most famous of these are in Beppu, on the east shore, and around Mt. Aso, in central Kyushu. The island is separated from Honshu by the Kanmon Straits.</p><br>
<p>The name Kyūshū comes from the nine ancient provinces of Saikaidō situated on the island: Chikuzen, Chikugo, Hizen, Higo, Buzen, Bungo, Hyūga, Osumi, and Satsuma.</p><br>
<p>Today&#39;s Kyushu Region is a politically defined region that consists of the seven prefectures on the island of Kyushu (which also includes the former Tsushima and Iki as part of Nagasaki), plus Okinawa Prefecture to the south:</p><br>
<p>Northern Kyushu</p><br>
<p>Fukuoka Prefecture</p><br>
<p>Kumamoto Prefecture</p><br>
<p>Nagasaki Prefecture</p><br>
<p>Ōita Prefecture</p><br>
<p>Saga Prefecture</p><br>
<p>Southern Kyushu</p><br>
<p>Kagoshima Prefecture</p><br>
<p>Miyazaki Prefecture</p><br>
<p>Okinawa Prefecture</p><br>
<h2>Demography</h2><br>
<p>Most of Kyushu&#39;s population is concentrated along the northwest, in the cities of Fukuoka and Kitakyushu, with population corridors stretching southwest into Sasebo and Nagasaki and south into Kumamoto and Kagoshima. Excepting Oita and Miyazaki cities, the eastern seaboard shows a general decline in population.</p><br>
<p>Kyushu is described as a stronghold of the LDP political party.</p><br>
<p>Fukuoka (population: 1,460,000)</p><br>
<p>Kitakyushu (population: 977,000)</p><br>
<p>Kumamoto (population: 730,000)</p><br>
<p>Kagoshima</p><br>
<p>Ōita</p><br>
<p>Nagasaki</p><br>
<p>Miyazaki</p><br>
<p>Naha</p><br>
<p>Kurume</p><br>
<p>Saga</p><br>
<h2>Economy and environment</h2><br>
<p>Parts of Kyushu have a subtropical climate, particularly Miyazaki prefecture and Kagoshima prefecture. Major agricultural products are rice, tea, tobacco, sweet potatoes, and soy; silk is also widely produced. The island is noted for various types of porcelain, including Arita, Imari, Satsuma, and Karatsu. Heavy industry is concentrated in the north around Fukuoka, Kitakyushu, Nagasaki, and Oita and includes chemicals, automobiles, semiconductors, and metal processing.</p><br>
<p>In 2010, the graduate employment rate in the region was the lowest nationwide, at 88.9%.</p><br>
<p>Besides the volcanic area of the south, there are significant mud hot springs in the northern part of the island, around Beppu. These springs are the site of occurrence of certain extremophile micro-organisms, that are capable of surviving in extremely hot environments.</p><br>
<p>Japanese motor manufacturer Lexus has a large, state of the art, manufacturing plant in Kyushu.</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>Major universities and colleges in Kyushu:</p><br>
<p>National universities</p><br>
<p>Kyushu University - One of seven former "Imperial Universities"</p><br>
<p>Kyushu Institute of Technology</p><br>
<p>Saga University</p><br>
<p>Nagasaki University</p><br>
<p>Kumamoto University</p><br>
<p>Fukuoka University of Education</p><br>
<p>Oita University</p><br>
<p>Miyazaki University</p><br>
<p>Kagoshima University</p><br>
<p>National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya</p><br>
<p>University of the Ryukyus</p><br>
<p>Universities run by local governments</p><br>
<p>University of Kitakyushu</p><br>
<p>Kyushu Dental College</p><br>
<p>Fukuoka Women&#39;s University</p><br>
<p>Fukuoka Prefectural University</p><br>
<p>Nagasaki Prefectural University</p><br>
<p>Oita University of Nursing and Health Sciences</p><br>
<p>Prefectural University of Kumamoto</p><br>
<p>Miyazaki Municipal University</p><br>
<p>Miyazaki Prefectural Nursing University</p><br>
<p>Okinawa Prefectural University of Arts</p><br>
<p>Major private universities</p><br>
<p>Fukuoka University - University with the largest number of students in Kyushu</p><br>
<p>Kumamoto Gakuen University</p><br>
<p>Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University</p><br>
<p>Seinan Gakuin University</p><br>
<p>Kyushu Sangyo University - Baseball team won the Japanese National Championship in 2005</p><br>
<p>University of Occupational and Environmental Health</p><br>
<p>Kurume University</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>The island is linked to the larger island of Honshu by the Kanmon Tunnels, which carry both the San&#39;yō Shinkansen and non-Shinkansen trains of the Kyushu Railway Company, as well as vehicular, pedestrian, and bicycle traffic. The Kanmon Bridge also connects the island with Honshu. Railways on the island are operated by the Kyushu Railway Company, and Nishitetsu Railway.</p><br>
<p>Chios  is the fifth largest of the Greek islands, situated in the Aegean Sea, 7 km off the Anatolian coast. The island is separated from Turkey by the Chios Strait. Chios is notable for its exports of mastic gum and its nickname is the Mastic Island. Tourist attractions include its medieval villages and the 11th-century monastery of Nea Moni, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.</p><br>
<p>Administratively, the island forms a separate municipality within the Chios regional unit, which is part of the North Aegean region. The principal town of the island and seat of the municipality is Chios town. Locals refer to Chios town as "Chora" ("Χώρα" literally means land or country, but usually refers to the capital or a settlement at the highest point of a Greek island).</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Chios island is crescent or kidney shaped, 50 km long from north to south, 29 km at its widest, and covers an area of 842.289 km&sup2;. The terrain is mountainous and arid, with a ridge of mountains running the length of the island. The two largest of these mountains, Pelineon (1,297 m) and Epos (1,188 m), are situated in the north of the island. The center of the island is divided between east and west by a range of smaller peaks, known as Provatas.</p><br>
<h3>Regions</h3><br>
<p>Chios can be divided into five regions:</p><br>
<h4>East coast</h4><br>
<p>Midway up the east coast lie the main population centers, the main town of Chios, and the regions of Vrontados and Kambos. Chios Town, with a population of 32,400, is built around the island&#39;s main harbour and medieval castle. The current castle, with a perimeter of 1,400 m, was principally constructed during the time of Venetian and Ottoman rule, although remains have been found dating settlements there back to 2000 B.C. The town was substantially damaged by an earthquake in 1881, and only partially retains its original character.</p><br>
<p>North of Chios Town lies the large suburb of Vrontados (population 4,500), which claims to be the birthplace of Homer. The suburb lies in the Omiroupoli municipality, and its connection to the poet is supported by an archaeological site known traditionally as "Teacher&#39;s Rock".</p><br>
<h4>Southern region (Mastichochoria)</h4><br>
<p>In the south of the island are the Mastichochoria, literally: Mastic Villages, the seven villages of Mesta (Μεστά), Pyrgi (Πυργί), Olympi (Ολύμποι), Kalamoti (Καλαμωτń), Vessa (Βέσσα), Lithi (Λιθί) and Elata (Ελάτα), which together have controlled the production of mastic gum in the area since the Roman period. The villages, built between the 14th and 16th centuries, have a carefully designed layout with fortified gates and narrow streets to protect against the frequent raids by marauding pirates. Between Chios Town and the Mastichochoria lie a large number of historic villages including Armolia (Αρμόλια), Myrmighi (Μυρμήγκι), and Kalimassia (Καλλιμασιά). Along the east coast are the fishing villages of Kataraktis (Καταρράκτης) and to the south Nenita (Νένητα).</p><br>
<h4>Interior</h4><br>
<p>Directly in the centre of the island, between the villages of Avgonyma to the west and Karyes to the east, is the 11th century monastery of Nea Moni, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The monastery was built with funds given by the Byzantine Emperor Constantine IX, after three monks, living in caves nearby, had petitioned him while he was in exile on the island of Mytilene. The monastery had substantial estates attached, with a thriving community until the massacre of 1822. It was further damaged during the 1881 earthquake. In 1952, due to the shortage of monks, Nea Moni was converted to a convent.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>The island&#39;s climate is warm and moderate, categorised as Temperate, Mediterranean (Csa), with modest variation due to the stabilising effect of the surrounding sea. Average temperatures normally range from a summer high of 27 &deg;C to a winter low of 11 &deg;C in January, although temperatures of over 40 &deg;C or below freezing can sometimes be encountered.</p><br>
<p>The island normally experiences steady breezes (average 3–5 m/s) throughout the year, with winds direction predominantly northerly ("Etesian" Wind—locally called the "Meltemi"), or south westerly (Sirocco).</p><br>
<h3>Geology</h3><br>
<p>The Chios Basin is a hydrographic sub-unit of the Aegean Sea adjacent to the island of Chios.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Etymology</h3><br>
<p>Known as "Ophioussa" (Οφιούσσα, "snake island") and "Pityoussa" (Πιτυούσσα, "pine-tree island") in antiquity, during the later Middle Ages the island was ruled by a number of non-Greek powers and was known as Scio (Genoese), Chio (Italian) and Sakız (صاقيز —Ottoman Turkish). The capital during that time was "Kastron" (Κάστρον, "castle").</p><br>
<h3>Prehistoric period</h3><br>
<p>Archaeological research on Chios has found evidence of habitation dating back at least to the Neolithic era. The primary sites of research for this period have been cave dwellings at Hagio(n) Galas, in the north, and a settlement and accompanying necropolis in modern-day Emporeio at the far south of the island. Scholars lack information on this period. The size and duration of these settlements have therefore not been well-established.</p><br>
<p>The British School at Athens under the direction of Sinclair Hood excavated the Emporeio site in 1952–1955, and most current information comes from these digs. The Greek Archaeological Service has also been excavating periodically on Chios since 1970, though much of its work on the island remains unpublished.</p><br>
<p>The noticeable uniformity in the size of houses at Emporeio leads some scholars to believe that there may have been little social distinction during the Neolithic era on the island. The inhabitants apparently all benefited from agricultural and livestock farming.</p><br>
<p>It is also widely held by scholars that the island was not occupied by humans during the Middle Bronze Age (2300–1600), though researchers have recently suggested that the lack of evidence from this period may only demonstrate the lack of excavations on Chios and the northern Aegean.</p><br>
<p>By at least the 11th century BC the island was ruled by a monarchy, and the subsequent transition to aristocratic (or possibly tyrannic) rule occurred sometime over the next four centuries. Future excavations may reveal more information about this period. 9th-century Euboean and Cypriote presence on the island is attested by ceramics, while a Phoenician presence is noted at Erythrae, the traditional competitor of Chios on the mainland.</p><br>
<h3>Archaic and Classical periods</h3><br>
<p>Pherecydes, native to the Aegean, wrote that the island was occupied by the Leleges, aboriginal Greeks who were reported to be subjected to the Minoans on Crete. They were eventually driven out by invading Ionians.</p><br>
<p>Chios was one of the original twelve member states of the Ionian League. As a result, Chios, at the end of the 7th century BC, was one of the first cities to strike or mint coins, establishing the sphinx as its symbol. It maintained this tradition for almost 900 years.</p><br>
<p>In the 6th century BC, Chios’ government adopted a constitution similar to that developed by Solon in Athens and later developed democratic elements with a voting assembly and people’s magistrates called damarchoi.</p><br>
<p>In 546 BC, Chios was subjected to the Persian Empire. Chios joined the Ionian Revolt against the Persians in 499 BC. The naval power of Chios during this period is demonstrated by the fact that the Chians had the largest fleet (100 ships) of all of the Ionians at the Battle of Lade in 494 BC. At Lade, the Chian fleet doggedly continued to fight the Persian fleet even after the defection of the Samians and others, but the Chians were ultimately forced to retreat and were again subjected to Persian domination.</p><br>
<p>The defeat of Persia at the Battle of Mycale in 479 BC meant the liberation of Chios from Persian rule. When the Athenians formed the Delian League, Chios joined as one of the few members who did not have to pay tribute but who supplied ships to the alliance.</p><br>
<p>By the fifth to fourth centuries BC, the island had grown to an estimated population of over 120,000 (two to three times the estimated population in 2005), based on the huge necropolis at the main city of Chios. It is thought that the majority of the population lived in that area.</p><br>
<p>In 412 BC, during the Peloponnesian War, Chios revolted against Athens, and the Athenians besieged it. Relief only came the following year when the Spartans were able to raise the siege. In the 4th century BC, Chios was a member of the Second Athenian Empire but revolted against Athens during the Social War (357–355 BC), and Chios became independent again until the rise of Macedonia.</p><br>
<h3>Hellenistic period</h3><br>
<p>Theopompus returned to Chios with the other exiles in 333 BC after Alexander had invaded Asia Minor and decreed their return, as well as the exile or trial of Persian supporters on the island. Theopompus was exiled again sometime after Alexander&#39;s death and took refuge in Egypt.</p><br>
<p>During this period, the island also had become the largest exporter of Greek wine, which was noted for being of relatively high quality (see "Chian wine"). Chian amphoras, with a characteristic sphinx emblem and bunches of grapes, have been found in nearly every country with whom the ancient Greeks traded. These countries included Gaul, Upper Egypt and Southern Russia.</p><br>
<h3>Roman period</h3><br>
<p>During the Third Macedonian War, thirty-five vessels allied to Rome, carrying about 1,000 Galatian troops, as well as a number of horses, were sent by Eumenes II to his brother Attalus.</p><br>
<p>Leaving from Elaea, they were headed to the harbour of Phanae, planning to disembark from there to Macedonia. However, Perseus&#39;s naval commander Antenor intercepted the fleet between Erythrae (on the Western coast of Turkey) and Chios.</p><br>
<p>According to Livy, they were caught completely off-guard by Antenor. Eumenes&#39; officers at first thought the intercepting fleet were friendly Romans, but scattered upon realizing they were facing an attack by their Macedonian enemy, some choosing to abandon ship and swim to Erythrae. Others, crashing their ships into land on Chios, fled toward the city.</p><br>
<p>The Chians however closed their gates, startled at the calamity. And the Macedonians, who had docked closer to the city anyway, cut the rest of the fleet off outside the city gates, and on the road leading to the city. Of the 1,000 men, 800 were killed, 200 taken prisoner.&#39;</p><br>
<p>After the Roman conquest Chios became part of the province of Asia.</p><br>
<p>Pliny remarks upon the islanders&#39; use of variegated marble in their buildings, and their appreciation for such stone above murals or other forms of artificial decoration.</p><br>
<p>According to the Acts of the Apostles, Luke the Evangelist, Paul the Apostle and their companions passed Chios during Paul&#39;s third missionary journey, on a passage from Lesbos to Samos.</p><br>
<h3>Byzantine period</h3><br>
<p>After the permanent division of the Roman Empire in 395 AD, Chios was for six centuries part of the Byzantine Empire. This came to an end when the island was briefly held (1090–97) by Tzachas, a Turkish bey in the region of Smyrna during the first expansion of the Turks to the Aegean coast. However, the Turks were driven back from the Aegean coast by the Byzantines aided by the First Crusade, and the island was restored to Byzantine rule by admiral Constantine Dalassenos.</p><br>
<p>This relative stability was ended by the sacking of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade (1204) and during the turmoil of the 13th century the island&#39;s ownership was constantly affected by the regional power struggles. After the Fourth Crusade, the Byzantine empire was divided up by the Latin emperors of Constantinople, with Chios nominally becoming a possession of the Republic of Venice. However, defeats for the Latin empire resulted in the island reverting to Byzantine rule in 1225.</p><br>
<h3>Genoese period (1304–1566)</h3><br>
<p>The Byzantine rulers had little influence and through the Treaty of Nymphaeum, authority was ceded to the Republic of Genoa (1261). At this time the island was frequently attacked by pirates, and by 1302–1303 was a target for the renewed Turkish fleets. To prevent Turkish expansion, the island was reconquered and kept as a renewable concession, at the behest of the Byzantine emperor Andronicus II Palaeologus, by the Genovese Benedetto I Zaccaria (1304), then admiral to Philip of France. Zaccaria installed himself as ruler of the island, founding the short-lived Lordship of Chios. His rule was benign and effective control remained in the hands of the local Greek landowners. Benedetto Zacharia was followed by his son Paleologo and then his grandsons or nephews Benedetto II and Martino. They attempted to turn the island towards the Latin and Papal powers, and away from the predominant Byzantine influence. The locals, still loyal to the Byzantine Empire, responded to a letter from the emperor and, despite a standing army of a thousand infantrymen, a hundred cavalrymen and two galleys, expelled the Zacharia family from the island (1329) and dissolved the fiefdom.</p><br>
<p>Local rule was brief. In 1346, a chartered company or Maona (the "Maona di Chio e di Focea") was set up in Genoa to reconquer and exploit Chios and the neighbouring town of Phocaea in Asia Minor. Although the islanders firmly rejected an initial offer of protection, the island was invaded by a Genoese fleet, led by Simone Vignoso, and the castle besieged. Again rule was transferred peacefully, as on 12 September the castle was surrendered and a treaty signed with no loss of privileges to the local landowners as long as the new authority was accepted.</p><br>
<p>The Genoese, being interested in profit rather than conquest, controlled the trade-posts and warehouses, in particular the trade of mastic, alum, salt and pitch. Other trades such as grain, wine oil and cloth and most professions were run jointly with the locals. After a failed uprising in 1347, and being heavily outnumbered (less than 10% of the population in 1395), the Latins maintained light control over the local population, remaining largely in the town and allowing full religious freedom. In this way the island remained under Genoese control for two centuries. By 1566, when Genoa lost Chios to the Ottoman Empire, there were 12.000 Greeks and 2.500 Genoese (or 17% of the total population) in the island.</p><br>
<h3>Ottoman period</h3><br>
<p>During Ottoman rule, the government and tax gathering again remained in the hands of Greeks and the Turkish garrison was small and inconspicuous.</p><br>
<p>As well as the Latin and Turkish influx, documents record a small Jewish population from at least 1049 AD. The original Greek (Romaniote) Jews, thought to have been brought over by the Romans, were later joined by Sephardic Jews welcomed by the Ottomans during the Iberian expulsions of the 15th century.</p><br>
<p>The mainstay of the island&#39;s famous wealth was the mastic crop. Chios was able to make a substantial contribution to the imperial treasury while at the same time maintaining only a light level of taxation. The Ottoman government regarded it as one of the most valuable provinces of the Empire.</p><br>
<h3>Modern period</h3><br>
<p>When the Greek War of Independence broke out, the island&#39;s leaders were reluctant to join the revolutionaries, fearing the loss of their security and prosperity. However, in March 1822, several hundred armed Greeks from the neighbouring island of Samos landed in Chios. They proclaimed the Revolution and launched attacks against the Turks, at which point islanders decided to join the struggle.</p><br>
<p>Ottomans landed a large force on the island consequently and put down the rebellion. The Ottoman massacre of Chios expelled, killed, or enslaved the inhabitants of the island. It wiped out whole villages, and affected the Mastichochoria area, the mastic growing villages in the south of the island. It triggered negative public reaction in Western Europe, as portrayed by Eugène Delacroix, and in the writing of Lord Byron and Victor Hugo.</p><br>
<p>In 1881, an earthquake, estimated as 6.5 on the moment magnitude scale, damaged a large portion of the island&#39;s buildings and resulted in great loss of life. Reports of the time spoke of 5,500–10,000 fatalities.</p><br>
<p>Meanwhile, Chios during this time emerges as the motherland of the modern Greek shipping industry. Indicatively, in 1764, Chios had 6 vessels with 90 sailors on record, in 1875 there were 104 ships with over 60,000 registered tonnes in 1889 were recorded 440 sailing ships of various types with 3,050 sailors. The dynamic development of Chian shipping in the 19th century is further attested by the various shipping related services that were present in the island during this time, such as the creation of the shipping insurance companies Chiaki Thalssoploia (Χιακή Θαλασσοπλοϊα), Dyo Adelfai (Δυο Αδελφαί), Omonoia (Ομονοια), the shipping bank Archangelos (Αρχάγγελος) (1863). The boom of Chian shipping took place with the successful transition from sailing vessels to steam. To this end, Chian ship owners were supported by the strong diaspora presence of Chian merchants, the connections they had developed with the financing centers of the time (Istanbul, London), the establishment in London of shipping businessmen, the creation of shipping academies in Chios and the expertise of Chian personnel on board.</p><br>
<p>Chios rejoined the rest of independent Greece after the First Balkan War (1912). The Greek Navy liberated Chios in November 1912 in a hard fought but brief amphibious operation. The Ottoman Empire recognized Greece&#39;s annexation of Chios and the other Aegean islands by the Treaty of London (1913).</p><br>
<p>Although Greece was neutral the island was occupied by the British during World War I.They landed on 17 February 1916.This may have been due to the island&#39;s proximity to the Ottoman Empire and the city of İzmir in particular.</p><br>
<p>It was affected by the population exchanges after the Greco–Turkish War of 1919–1922, the incoming Greek refugees settling in Kastro (previously Turkish) and in new settlements hurriedly built south of Chios Town.</p><br>
<p>The island saw some local violence during the Greek Civil War setting neighbour against neighbour. This ended when the final band of communist fighters was trapped and killed in the orchards of Kambos and their bodies driven through the main town on the back of a truck. In March 1948, the island was used as an internment camp for female political detainees (communists or relatives of guerillas) and their children, who were housed in military barracks near the town of Chios. Up to 1300 women and 50 children were housed in cramped and degrading conditions, until March 1949 when the camp was closed and the inhabitants moved to Trikeri.</p><br>
<p>The production of mastic was threatened by the Chios forest fire that swept the southern half of the island in August 2012 and destroyed some mastic groves.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>According to the 2011 census, Chios has a permanent resident population of 52,674.</p><br>
<h2>Government</h2><br>
<p>The present municipality Chios was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 8 former municipalities, that became municipal units:</p><br>
<p>Agios Minas</p><br>
<p>Amani</p><br>
<p>Chios (town)</p><br>
<p>Ionia</p><br>
<p>Kampochora</p><br>
<p>Kardamyla</p><br>
<p>Mastichochoria</p><br>
<p>Omiroupoli</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<h3>Commerce</h3><br>
<p>The local merchant shipping community transports several locally grown products including mastic, olives, figs, wine, mandarins, and cherries.</p><br>
<h3>Cuisine</h3><br>
<p>Local specialities of the island include:</p><br>
<p>kordelia</p><br>
<p>malathropita</p><br>
<p>sfougato</p><br>
<p>mamoulia (dessert)</p><br>
<p>masourakia (dessert)</p><br>
<p>mastichato (drink)</p><br>
<h3>Antimony Mines</h3><br>
<p>Sporadically for some time at early 19th century to 1950s there was mining activity on the island at Keramos Antimony Mines.</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<p>Nea Moni is a monastery with fine mosaics from Constantine IX&#39;s reign and a World Heritage Site.</p><br>
<p>An ancient inscription (at Chios Archaeological Museum) from a fifth-century funerary monument for Heropythos the son of Philaios, traced his family back over fourteen generations to Kyprios at the tenth century BC, before there were any written records in Greece.</p><br>
<p>Castle of Chios, a Byzantine fort built in the 10th century</p><br>
<p>St. George&#39;s church</p><br>
<p>Chios Byzantine Museum</p><br>
<p>Archaeological Museum of Chios</p><br>
<p>The town of Vrontados is home to a unique Easter celebration, where competing teams of locals gather at the towns two (rival) churches to fire tens of thousands of homemade rockets at the other churchs bell tower while the Easter service is going on inside the churches, in what has become known as rouketopolemos.</p><br>
<p>F.C. Lailapas (Chios town)</p><br>
<h2>International relations</h2><br>
<h3>Twin towns – Sister cities</h3><br>
<p>Chios is twinned with:</p><br>
<p>Brezno, Slovakia</p><br>
<p>Dinant, Belgium</p><br>
<p>Ermoupoli, Greece</p><br>
<p>Genoa, Italy</p><br>
<p>Guiyang, China</p><br>
<p>Ortona, Italy</p><br>
<p>Polykastro, Greece</p><br>
<h2>Notable natives and inhabitants</h2><br>
<p>A native of Chios is known in English as a Chian, or a Chioti.</p><br>
<h3>Ancient</h3><br>
<p>Homer (8th century BC), poet. See-History of the Pelopennesian War, by Thucydides, section 3.104.5, wherein Thucydides quotes Homers self-reference: "A blind old man of Scios rocky isle."</p><br>
<p>Oenopides (c. 490 – c. 420 BC), mathematician and geometer</p><br>
<p>Hippocrates of Chios (c. 470 – c. 410 BC), notable mathematician, geometer and astronomer</p><br>
<p>Theopompus of Chios (378 – c. 320 BC), rhetorical historian</p><br>
<p>Erasistratus of Chios (304–250 BC), pioneering anatomist, royal physician and founder of the ancient medical school of Alexandria, who discovered the linking between organs through the systems of veins, arteries and nerves</p><br>
<p>Aristo of Chios (c. 260 BC), Stoic philosopher</p><br>
<p>Claudia Metrodora (c. 54–68 AD), public benefactor</p><br>
<h3>Medieval</h3><br>
<p>Saint Markella (14th century), martyr and saint of the Orthodox church</p><br>
<p>Matrona of Chios (* 15th century, † before 1455), saint of the Orthodox church</p><br>
<p>Andrea Bianco (15th century), Genoese cartographer resided on Chios</p><br>
<p>In 1982, Ruth Durlacher hypothesised that Chios was Christopher Columbuss birthplace. Columbus himself said he was from the Republic of Genoa, which included the island of Chios at the time. Columbus was friendly with a number of Chian Genoese families, referenced Chios in his writings and used the Greek language for some of his notes. Columbus&#39; remains a common surname on Chios. Other common Greek spellings are: Kouloumbis and Couloumbis.</p><br>
<p>Francisco Albo (16th century), pilot of Magellan expedition, the first circumnavigation of the Earth</p><br>
<p>Leo Allatius (Leone Allacci) (c. 1586–1669), Greek Catholic scholar and theologian</p><br>
<h3>Modern</h3><br>
<p>Scylitzes family, descented from Byzantine times</p><br>
<p>Mavrokordatos family</p><br>
<p>Athanasios Parios (1722–1813), Greek hieromonk and notable theologian, philosopher, educator, and hymnographer of his time</p><br>
<p>Macarius of Corinth (1731–1805), metropolitan bishop of Corinth, mystic and spiritual theological writer</p><br>
<p>Nikephoros of Chios (ca. 1750–1821), abbot of Nea Moni monastery, theological writer and orthodox saint</p><br>
<p>Alexandros Kontostavlos (1789–1865), politician</p><br>
<p>Amvrosios Skaramagas (1790–1864), merchant</p><br>
<p>Alexandros Georgios Paspatis (1814–1891), linguist, historian and physician, researcher of the Romani language and of the history and culture of the Roma people</p><br>
<p>George Colvocoresses (1816–1872), military officer</p><br>
<p>Mustapha Khaznadar (1817–1878), was Prime Minister of the Beylik of Tunis</p><br>
<p>Michel Emmanuel Rodocanachi (1821–1901), trader and banker of London</p><br>
<p>Andreas Syngros (1830), banker, descented from Chios</p><br>
<p>Patriarch Constantine V of Constantinople (1833–?)</p><br>
<p>Ralli Brothers (18th–19th century), founders of major 19th century trading enterprise</p><br>
<p>Ibrahim Edhem Pasha (1819–1893), Ottoman Grand Vizier</p><br>
<p>Namık Kemal (1840–1888), one of the principal founders of modern Turkish literature, served as a sub-prefect (exiled in practical terms) of Chios from 1886 to his death on the island in 1888</p><br>
<p>Osman Hamdi Bey (1842–1910), Ottoman painter, archaeologist</p><br>
<p>George I. Zolotas (1845–1906), local historian of the island and director of the high school of Chios; wrote a five volume History of Chios in Greek language</p><br>
<p>Ioannis Psycharis (1854–1929), philologist, descented from Chios</p><br>
<p>Konstantinos Amantos (1874–1960), Byzantine scholar, professor at the University of Athens, member of the Athens Academy</p><br>
<p>Kostia Vlastos (1883–1967), banker, of the old Vlastos family</p><br>
<p>John D. Chandris (1890–1942), Greek shipowner</p><br>
<p>Stavros Livanos (1891–1963), shipping magnate</p><br>
<p>Philip Pandely Argenti (1891–1974), member of an old Chian noble family, greatest historian of the island, wrote more than a dozen historical portrayals of the island of Chios</p><br>
<p>Ioannis Despotopoulos (1903–1992), architect</p><br>
<p>Kostas Perrikos (1905–1943), Greek Resistance figure, leader of PEAN</p><br>
<p>Costas M. Lemos (1910–1995), Greek shipowner</p><br>
<p>Adamantios Lemos (1916–2006), actor</p><br>
<p>Anthony J. Angelicoussis (1918–1989), Greek shipowner</p><br>
<p>Andreas Papandreou (1919–1996), politician, Prime Minister of Greece</p><br>
<p>Anthony J. Chandris (1924–1984), Greek shipowner</p><br>
<p>Mikis Theodorakis (1925), composer, born on the island</p><br>
<p>Jani Christou (1926–1970), composer</p><br>
<p>George P. Livanos (1926–1997), Greek shipowner</p><br>
<p>Stamatios Krimigis (1938), NASA space scientist</p><br>
<p>Takis Fotopoulos (1940), political writer</p><br>
<p>Adamantios Vassilakis (1942), diplomat</p><br>
<p>Dimitris Varos (1949), author, poet, journalist</p><br>
<p>Dimos Avdeliodis (1952), writer, film and theater director</p><br>
<p>Mark Palios (1952, of Chian descent), former professional footballer and former chief executive of the English Football Association</p><br>
<p>Matthew Mirones (1956), New York politician</p><br>
<p>Nikos Pateras (1963), shipowner</p><br>
<p>Angeliki Frangou, shipowner</p><br>
<p>John Sitaras (1972), fitness professional</p><br>
<p>Kangchenjunga , also spelled Kanchenjunga, is the third highest mountain in the world, and lies partly in Nepal and partly in Sikkim, India. It rises with an elevation of 8,586 m in a section of the Himalayas called Kangchenjunga Himal that is limited in the west by the Tamur River, in the north by the Lhonak Chu and Jongsang La, and in the east by the Teesta River.</p><br>
<p>Mount Kangchenjunga lies about 125 km east-south-east of Mount Everest.</p><br>
<p>Kangchenjunga Main is the highest mountain in India, and the easternmost of the mountains higher than 8,000 m. It is called Five Treasures of Snow after its five high peaks, and has always been worshipped by the people of Darjeeling and Sikkim.</p><br>
<p>Until 1852, Kangchenjunga was assumed to be the highest mountain in the world, but calculations based on various readings and measurements made by the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India in 1849 came to the conclusion that Mount Everest, known as Peak XV at the time, was the highest. Allowing for further verification of all calculations, it was officially announced in 1856 that Kangchenjunga is the third highest mountain in the world.</p><br>
<p>Kangchenjunga was first climbed on 25 May 1955 by Joe Brown and George Band, who were part of a British expedition. They stopped short of the summit in accordance with the promise given to the Chogyal that the top of the mountain would remain inviolate. Every climber or climbing group that has reached the summit has followed this tradition. Other members of this expedition included John Angelo Jackson and Tom Mackinon.</p><br>
<h2>Names</h2><br>
<p>Kangchenjunga is the official spelling adopted by Douglas Freshfield, Alexander Mitchell Kellas, and the Royal Geographical Society that gives the best indication of the Tibetan pronunciation. Freshfield referred to the spelling used by the Indian Government since the late 19th century.</p><br>
<p>There are a number of alternative spellings including Kangchendzönga, Khangchendzonga, and Kanchenjunga.</p><br>
<p>Nepali people spell it Kanchanjanga.</p><br>
<p>The brothers Hermann, Adolf and Robert Schlagintweit explained the local name Kanchinjínga (, Sikkimese IPA: ) meaning "The five treasures of the high snow" as originating from the Tibetan word (following IPA given in Sikkimese) gangs meaning "snow, ice&quot chen meaning "great&quot mdzod meaning "treasure&quot lnga meaning "five". It means "The Five repositories or ledges of great snow" and is physically descriptive of its five peaks.</p><br>
<p>Local Lhopo people believe that the treasures are hidden but reveal to the devout when the world is in peril; the treasures comprise salt, gold, turquoise and precious stones, sacred scriptures, invincible armor or ammunition, grain and medicine.</p><br>
<p>Kangchenjunga&#39;s name in the Limbu language is Senjelungma or Seseylungma, and is believed to be an abode of the omnipotent goddess Yuma Sammang.</p><br>
<h2>Protected areas</h2><br>
<p>The Kangchenjunga landscape is a complex of three distinct ecoregions: the eastern Himalayan broad-leaved and coniferous forests, the Eastern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows and the Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands.</p><br>
<p>The Kangchenjunga transboundary landscape is shared by Bhutan, China, India and Nepal, and comprises 14 protected areas with a total of 6,032 km&sup2;:</p><br>
<p>Nepal: Kanchenjunga Conservation Area.</p><br>
<p>Sikkim, India: Khangchendzonga National Park, Barsey Rhododendron Sanctuary, Fambong Lho Wildlife Sanctuary, Kyongnosla Alpine Sanctuary, Maenam Wildlife Sanctuary, Shingba Rhododendron Sanctuary, Pangolakha Wildlife Sanctuary</p><br>
<p>Darjeeling, India: Jore Pokhri Wildlife Sanctuary, Singalila National Park, Senchal Wildlife Sanctuary, Mahananda Wildlife Sanctuary, Neora Valley National Park.</p><br>
<p>Bhutan: Torsa Strict Nature Reserve</p><br>
<p>These protected areas are habitats for many globally significant plant species such as rhododendrons and orchids and many endangered flagship species such as snow leopard, Asian black bear, red panda, white-bellied musk deer, blood pheasant and chestnut-breasted partridge.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Kangchenjunga Himal section of the Himalayas lies both in Nepal and India, and encompasses 16 peaks over 7,000 m. In the north, it is limited by the Lhonak Chu, Goma Chu and Jongsang La, and in the east by the Teesta River. The western limit runs from the Jongsang La down the Gingsang and Kangchenjunga glaciers and the rivers of Ghunsa and Tamur.</p><br>
<p>Kangchenjunga and its satellite peaks form a huge mountain massif. The massif&#39;s five highest peaks are listed in the following table.</p><br>
<p>The main ridge of the massif runs from north-north-east to south-south-west and forms a watershed to several rivers. Together with ridges running roughly from east to west they form a giant cross. These ridges contain a host of peaks between 6,000 and. The northern section includes Yalung Kang, Kangchenjunga Central and South, Kangbachen, Kirat Chuli and Gimmigela Chuli, and runs up to the Jongsang La. The eastern ridge in Sikkim includes Siniolchu. The southern section runs along the Nepal-Sikkim border and includes Kabru I to III. This ridge extends southwards to the Singalila Ridge. The western ridge culminates in the Kumbhakarna, also known as Jannu.</p><br>
<p>Four main glaciers radiate from the peak, pointing roughly to the north-east, south-east, north-west and south-west. The Zemu glacier in the north-east and the Talung glacier in the south-east drain to the Teesta River; the Yalung glacier in the south-west and the Kangchen glacier in the north-west drain to the Arun and Kosi rivers.</p><br>
<p>The glaciers spread over the area above approximately 5,000 m, and the glacialized area covers about 314 km&sup2; in total. There are 120 glaciers in the Kanchenjunga Himal, of which 17 are debris-covered. Between 1958 and 1992, more than half of 57 examined glaciers had retreated, possibly due to rising of air temperature.</p><br>
<p>Kangchenjunga Main is the highest elevation of the Brahmaputra River basin, which forms part of the southeast Asian monsoon regime and is among the globally largest river basins.</p><br>
<p>Kangchenjunga is one of six peaks above 8,000 m located in the basin of the Koshi river, which is among the largest tributaries of the Ganges.</p><br>
<p>The Kangchenjunga massif forms also part of the Ganges Basin.</p><br>
<p>Although it is the third highest peak in the world, Kangchenjunga is only ranked 29th by topographic prominence, a measure of a mountain&#39;s independent stature. The key col for Kangchenjunga lies at a height of 4,664 m, along the watershed boundary between Arun and Brahmaputra rivers in Tibet. It is however, the 4th most prominent peak in the Himalaya, after Everest, and the western and eastern anchors of the Himalaya, Nanga Parbat and Namcha Barwa, respectively.</p><br>
<h2>Climbing routes</h2><br>
<p>There are four climbing routes to reach the summit of Kangchenjunga, three of which are in Nepal from the southwest, northwest and northeast, and one from northeastern Sikkim in India. To date, the northeastern route from Sikkim has been successfully used only three times. The Indian government has banned expeditions to Kanchenjunga, and therefore this route has been closed since 2000.</p><br>
<h2>Climbing history</h2><br>
<h3>Early reconnaissances and attempts</h3><br>
<p>Between April 1848 and February 1849, Joseph Dalton Hooker explored parts of northern Sikkim and eastern Nepal, mainly to collect plants and study the distribution of Himalayan flora. He was based in Darjeeling, and made repeated excursions in the river valleys and into the foothills of Kangchenjunga up to an altitude of 15,620 ft.</p><br>
<p>In spring 1855, the German explorer Hermann Schlagintweit travelled to Darjeeling but was not allowed to proceed further north due to the Nepalese-Tibetan War. In May, he explored the Singalila Ridge up to the peak of Tonglo for a meteorological survey.</p><br>
<p>In 1879, Sarat Chandra Das and Lama Ugyen-gyatso crossed into Tibet west of "Kanchanjinga" via eastern Nepal and the Tashilhunpo Monastery en route to Lhasa. They returned along the same route in 1881.</p><br>
<p>In 1883, a party of William Woodman Graham together with two Swiss mountaineers climbed in the area of Kangchenjunga. They were the first who ascended Kabru within 30 - below the summit. They crossed the Kang La pass, and climbed a peak of nearly 19,000 ft from which they examined Jannu. They concluded it was too late in the year for an attempt and returned once again to Darjeeling.</p><br>
<p>Between October 1885 and January 1886, Rinzin Namgyal surveyed the unexplored north and west sides of Kangchenjunga. He was the first native surveyor to map the circuit of Kangchenjunga and provided sketches of each side of the peak and the adjoining valleys. He also defined the frontiers of Nepal, Tibet and Sikkim in this area.</p><br>
<p>In 1899, British mountaineer Douglas Freshfield set out with his party comprising the Italian photographer Vittorio Sella. They were the first mountaineers to examine the lower and upper ramparts, and the great western face of Kangchenjunga, rising from the Kangchenjunga Glacier.</p><br>
<p>In 1905, a party headed by Aleister Crowley was the first attempt at climbing the mountain. Aleister Crowley had been part of the team attempting the 1902 ascent of K2. The team reached an estimated altitude of 6,500 m on the southwest side of the mountain before turning back. The exact height reached is somewhat unclear; Crowley stated that on 31 August, "We were certainly over 21,000 ft and possibly over 22,000 ft", when the team was forced to retreat to Camp 5 by the risk of avalanche. On 1 September, they evidently went further; some members of the team, Reymond, Pache and Salama, "got over the bad patch" that had forced them to return to Camp 5 the day before, and progressed "out of sight and hearing" before returning to Crowley and the men with packs, who could not cross the dangerous section unassisted with their burdens. It is not clear how far Reymond, Pache and Salama had ascended – but in summarizing, Crowley ventured "We had reached a height of approximately 25,000 ft." Attempting a "mutinous" late-in-the-day descent from Camp 5 to Camp 4, climber Alexis Pache (who earlier that day had been one of three to ascend possibly higher than any before), and three local porters, were killed in an avalanche. Despite the insistence of one of the men that "The demon of Kangchenjunga was propitiated with the sacrifice", Crowley decided enough was enough and that it was inappropriate to continue.</p><br>
<p>In 1907, two Norwegians set about climbing Jongri via the Kabru glacier to the south, an approach apparently rejected by Graham&#39;s party. Progress was very slow, partly because of problems with supplies and porters, and presumably also lack of fitness and acclimatisation. However, from a high camp at about 22,600 ft they were eventually able to reach a point 50 or below the summit before they were turned back by strong winds.</p><br>
<p>In 1929, the German Paul Bauer led an expedition team that reached 7,400 m on the northeast spur before being turned back by a five-day storm.</p><br>
<p>In May 1929, the American E. F. Farmer left Darjeeling with native porters, crossed the Kang La into Nepal and climbed up towards the Talung Saddle. When his porters refused to go any further, he climbed alone further upwards through drifting mists but did not return.</p><br>
<p>In 1930, Günter Dyhrenfurth led an international expedition comprising the German Uli Wieland, Austrian Erwin Schneider and Englishman Frank Smythe who attempted to climb Kangchenjunga. They failed due to poor weather and snow conditions.</p><br>
<p>In 1931, Paul Bauer led a second German expedition team who attempted the northeast spur before being turned back by bad weather, illnesses, and deaths. The team retreated after climbing only a little higher than the 1929 attempt.</p><br>
<p>In 1954, John Kempe led a party comprising J. W. Tucker, S. R. Jackson, G. C. Lewis, T. H. Braham and medical officer Dr. D. S. Mathews. They explored the upper Yalung glacier with the intention to discover a practicable route to the great ice-shelf that runs across the south-west face of Kangchenjunga. This reconnaissance led to the route used by the successful 1955 expedition.</p><br>
<h3>First ascent</h3><br>
<p>In 1955, Joe Brown and George Band made the first ascent on 25 May, followed by Norman Hardie and Tony Streather on 26 May. The full team also included John Clegg (team doctor), Charles Evans (team leader), John Angelo Jackson, Neil Mather, and Tom Mackinnon.</p><br>
<p>The ascent proved that Aleister Crowley&#39;s 1905 route (also investigated by the 1954 reconnaissance) was viable. The route starts on the Yalung Glacier to the southwest of the peak, and climbs the Yalung Face, which is 3,000 m high. The main feature of this face is the "Great Shelf", a large sloping plateau at around 7,500 m, covered by a hanging glacier. The route is almost entirely on snow, glacier, and one icefall; the summit ridge itself can involve a small amount of travel on rock. The first ascent expedition made six camps above their base camp, two below the Shelf, two on it, and two above it. They started on 18 April, and everyone was back to base camp by 28 May.</p><br>
<h3>Other notable ascents</h3><br>
<p>1973 Yutaka Ageta and Takeo Matsuda of the Japanese expedition summitted Kangchenjunga West (Yalung Kang) by climbing the SW Ridge.</p><br>
<p>1977 The second ascent of Kangchenjunga, by an Indian Army team led by Colonel Narendra Kumar. They completed the northeast spur, the difficult ridge that defeated German expeditions in 1929 and 1931.</p><br>
<p>1978 Polish teams made the first successful ascents of the summits Kangchenjunga South (Wojciech Wróż and Eugeniusz Chrobak, 19 May) and Kangchenjunga Central (Wojciech Brański, Zygmunt Andrzej Heinrich, Kazimierz Olech, 22 May).</p><br>
<p>1979 The third ascent, on 16 May, and the first without oxygen, by Doug Scott, Peter Boardman and Joe Tasker establishing a new route on the North Ridge</p><br>
<p>1982 The 6th of May sees Ang Dorje, Friedel Mutschlechner, and Reinhold Messner (suffering from amoebic liver abscess) reach the top by a variation on the North Face route without supplemental oxygen.</p><br>
<p>1983 Pierre Beghin made the first solo ascent. It was accomplished without the use of supplemental oxygen.</p><br>
<p>1986 On 11 January, Krzysztof Wielicki and Jerzy Kukuczka, Polish climbers, made the first winter ascent. Otto Guilherme Gerstenberger Junior (Brazilian) and Johann Krigeer (South African) reach the peak without using supplemental oxygen.</p><br>
<p>1988 First successful American Expedition; led by Carlos Buhler, from the North Face. Summiting were Buhler, Peter Habeler (Austrian) and Martin Zabaleta (Spanish)</p><br>
<p>1989 A Soviet expedition successfully traversed all four summits of Kangchenjunga that are higher than 8,000m. Two separate teams traversed the summits in opposite directions.</p><br>
<p>1989 American Expedition led by Lou Whittaker, with six people summiting on the Northwall: George Dunn, Craig van Hoy, Ed Viesturs, Phil Ershler, Larry Nielson, Greg Wilson.</p><br>
<p>1991 Slovenian Marija Frantar and Joze Rozman attempted the first ascent by a woman. Their bodies were later found below the summit headwall.</p><br>
<p>1991 Slovenian Andrej Štremfelj and Marko Prezelj completed an alpine-style climb up the south ridge of Kangchenjunga to the south summit (8,494 m).</p><br>
<p>1992 Carlos Carsolio made the only summit that year. It was in a solo climb without supplementary oxygen.</p><br>
<p>1992 Wanda Rutkiewicz, the first woman in the world to ascend and descend K2 and a world-renowned Polish climber, died after she insisted on waiting for an incoming storm to pass, which she did not survive.</p><br>
<p>1995 Benoît Chamoux, Pierre Royer and their Sherpa guide disappeared on 6 October near the summit.</p><br>
<p>1998 Ginette Harrison was the first woman who climbed Kangchenjunga North face.</p><br>
<p>2005 Alan Hinkes, a British climber, was the only person to summit in the 50th anniversary of the first ascent year.</p><br>
<p>2006 Gerlinde Kaltenbrunner, an Austrian mountaineer, was the second woman to reach the summit.</p><br>
<p>2009 Jon Gangdal and Mattias Karlsson reached the summit, becoming, respectively, the first Norwegian and the first Swedish mountaineer to summit this mountain.</p><br>
<p>2009 Edurne Pasaban, a Spanish mountaineer, reached the summit becoming the first woman to summit twelve eight-thousanders.</p><br>
<p>In May 2009, Kinga Baranowska was the first Polish woman to reach the summit of Kangchenjunga.</p><br>
<p>2011 Tunc Findik became the first Turkish man to reach the peak of Kangchenjunga, his seventh eight thousander, with Swiss partner Guntis Brandts via the British 1955 SW Face route.</p><br>
<p>2011 Indian mountaineers Basanta Singha Roy and Debasish Biswas of Mountaineers&#39; Association of Krishnanagar (MAK), West Bengal, India, successfully scaled Kangchenjunga Main on 20 May 2011.</p><br>
<p>In May 2013, five climbers including Hungarian Zsolt Erőss and Péter Kiss reached the summit, but disappeared during the descent.</p><br>
<p>In May 2014, Bulgarian Boyan Petrov reached the peak without the use of supplemental oxygen. Petrov is a diabetic.</p><br>
<p>Despite improved climbing gear the fatality rate of climbers attempting to summit Kanchenjunga is high. Since the 1990s, more than 20% of people died while climbing Kanchenjunga&#39;s main peak.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>Some of the most famous views of Kangchenjunga are from the hill station of Darjeeling and Antu Dada of Ilam, Nepal. The Darjeeling War Memorial is among the most visited places from which Kangchenjunga is observed. On a clear day it presents an image not so much of a mountain but of a white wall hanging from the sky. The people of Sikkim revere Kangchenjunga as a sacred mountain. Permission to climb the mountain from the Indian side is rarely given.</p><br>
<p>Due to its remote location in Nepal and the difficulty involved in accessing it from India, the Kangchenjunga region is not much explored by trekkers. It has, therefore, retained much of its pristine beauty. In Sikkim too, trekking into the Kangchenjunga region has just recently been permitted. The Goecha La trek is gaining popularity amongst tourists. It goes to the Goecha La Pass, located right in front of the huge southeast face of Kangchenjunga. Another trek to Green Lake Basin has recently been opened for trekking. This trek goes to the Northeast side of Kangchenjunga along the famous Zemu Glacier. The film Singalila in the Himalaya is journey around Kangchenjunga.</p><br>
<h2>In myth</h2><br>
<p>The area around Kangchenjunga is said to be home to a mountain deity, called Dzö-nga or "Kangchenjunga Demon", a type of yeti or rakshasa. A British geological expedition in 1925 spotted a bipedal creature which they asked the locals about, who referred to it as the "Kangchenjunga Demon".</p><br>
<p>For generations, there have been legends recounted by the inhabitants of the areas surrounding Mount Kanchenjunga, both in Sikkim and in Nepal, that there is a valley of immortality hidden on its slopes. These stories are well known to both the original inhabitants of the area, the Lepcha people, and those of the Tibetan Buddhist cultural tradition. In Tibetan, this valley is known as Beyul Demoshong. In 1962 a Tibetan Lama by the name of Tulshuk Lingpa led over 300 followers into the high snow slopes of Kanchenjunga to ‘open the way’ to Beyul Demoshong. The story of this expedition is recounted in the 2011 book A Step Away from Paradise.</p><br>
<h2>In literature</h2><br>
<p>In the Swallows and Amazons series of books by Arthur Ransome, a high mountain (unnamed in the books, but clearly based on the Old Man of Coniston in the English Lake District) is given the name "Kanchenjunga" by the children when they climb it in 1931.</p><br>
<p>In The Epic of Mount Everest, first published in 1926, Sir Francis Younghusband: " For natural beauty Darjiling (Darjeeling) is surely unsurpassed in the world. From all countries travellers come there to see the famous view of Kangchenjunga, 28,150 ft in height, and only 40 mi distant. Darjiling (Darjeeling) itself is 7,000 ft above sea-level and is set in a forest of oaks, magnolia, rhododendrons, laurels and sycamores. And through these forests the observer looks down the steep mountain-sides to the Rangeet River only 1,000 ft above sea-level, and then up and up through tier after tier of forest-clad ranges, each bathed in a haze of deeper and deeper purple, till the line of snow is reached; and then still up to the summit of Kangchenjunga, now so pure and ethereal we can scarcely believe it is part of the solid earth on which we stand; and so high it seems part of the very sky itself."</p><br>
<p>In 1999, official James Bond author Raymond Benson published High Time to Kill. In this story, a microdot containing a secret formula for aviation technology is stolen by a society called the Union. During their escape, their plane crashes on the slopes of Kangchenjunga and James Bond becomes part of a climbing expedition in order to retrieve the formula.</p><br>
<p>The Inheritance of Loss by Kiran Desai, which won the 2006 Man Booker Prize, is set partly in Kalimpong, a hill station situated near Kangchenjunga.</p><br>
<p>In Legend of the Galactic Heroes by Yoshiki Tanaka, which won the Seiun Award for "Best Novel of the Year" in 1988 and was adapted into an anime series by Kitty Films, the capital and holiest temple of the Terraist Cult is on Earth beneath the rubble of Kangchenjunga.</p><br>
<p>Michelle Paver&#39;s 2016 ghost story Thin Air concerns a fictional expedition to climb Kangchenjunga in 1935, and an earlier (also fictional) expedition in 1906.</p><br>
<p>The book Round Kangchenjunga – A Narrative of Mountain Travel and Exploration by Douglas Freshfield gives a complete account of his travel around Kangchenjunga.</p><br>
<h2>Further reading</h2><br>
<p>Joseph Dalton Hooker 1855. Himalayan Journals. Assistant-director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.</p><br>
<p>Maj Laurence Waddell 1899. Among The Himalayas. Travels in Sikkim. Book includes the exploration of the south of Kangchenjunga.</p><br>
<p>Aleister Crowley 1905. The Confessions of Aleister Crowley, Chapters 51, 52 & 53, Tells of the Kangchenjunga Expedition by he and Dr. Jacot-Guillarmod.</p><br>
<p>Douglas Freshfield 1903. Round Kangchenjunga – A Narrative of Mountain Travel and Exploration. Edward Arnold, London</p><br>
<p>Paul Bauer 1937. Himalayan Campaign. Blackwell is the story of Bauer&#39;s two attempts in 1929 and 1931, republished as Kangchenjunga Challenge (William Kimber, 1955).</p><br>
<p>Paul Bauer The German Attack on Kangchenjunga, The Himalayan Journal, 1930 Vol. II.</p><br>
<p>Lieut. Col. H.W. Tobin Exploration and Climbing in The Sikkim Himalaya The Himalayan Journal, April 1930 Vol. II. Provides the early exploration and climbing attempts on Kangchenjunga.</p><br>
<p>F.S. Smythe The Kangchenjunga Adventure, 1930 to 1931. Victor Gollancz, Ltd. Smythe was the team member responsible for writing and sending the dispatches to The Statesman in Calcutta, (Mr. Alfred Watson Editor), who transmitted the dispatches to The Times (editors Deakin & Bogaerde), during the expedition of 1930 *.</p><br>
<p>Prof. G. O. Dyhrenfurth The International Himalayan Expedition, 1930, The Himalayan Journal, April 1931, Vol. III. Details their attempt on Kangchenjunga.</p><br>
<p>H.W. Tilman The ascent of Nanda Devi, 7 June 1937, Cambridge University Press. Relates the story of their intention to climb Kangchenjunga.</p><br>
<p>Irving, R. L. G. 1940. Ten Great Mountains. London, J. M. Dent & Sons</p><br>
<p>John Angelo Jackson 1955. More than Mountains Book containing data on the 1954 Kangchenjunga reconnaissance. Jackson was also a team member of the first ascent of Kangchenjunga in 1955, also relates the Daily Mail "Abominable Snowman" or Yeti Expedition, when the first trek from Everest to Kangchenjunga was accomplished *. Relevant pages 97 onwards with two detailed maps.</p><br>
<p>Charles Evans Kangchenjunga The Untrodden Peak, Hodder & Stoughton, Leader of the 1955 expedition. Principal of the University College of North Wales, Bangor. Foreword by His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, K.G.</p><br>
<p>Joe Brown, The Hard Years, tells his version of the first ascent of Kangchenjunga in 1955.</p><br>
<p>Colonel Narinder Kumar 1978. Kangchenjunga: First ascent from the north-east spur. Vision books. Includes the second ever ascent of Kangchenjunga and the first from the North-East Spur on the Indian side of the mountain. See also Himalayan Journal Vol. 36 and 50th Anniversary Edition</p><br>
<p>Peter Boardman 1982. Sacred Summits: A Climber&#39;s Year. Includes the 1979 ascent of Kangchenjunga with Joe Tasker and Doug Scott. Also in The Himalayan Journal Vol 36.</p><br>
<p>John Angelo Jackson 2005. Adventure Travels in the Himalaya. Indus Publishing. Recounts in more detail the first ascent of Kangchenjunga.</p><br>
<p>Simon Pierse 2005. Kangchenjunga: Imaging a Himalayan Mountain. University of Wales, School of Art Press. An anthology of word and image published to coincide with the 50th anniversary of the first ascents of Kangchenjunga. Well illustrated with reproductions of paintings, prints and photographs describing the climbing history and cultural significance of the mountain. Preface by George Band.</p><br>
<p>The above Himalayan Journal References were all also reproduced in the "50th Anniversary of the First Ascent of Kangchenjunga" The Himalayan Club, Kolkata Section 2005.</p><br>
<p>Pema Wangchuk and Mita Zulca Khangchendzonga: Sacred Summit. The book details the stories and legends celebrated by the communities living in the Kangchenjunga&#39;s shadow, goes over the exploits of the early explorers and mountaineers. Chapters cover what Khangchendzonga means to Buddhism, mapping, early explorers, Alexander Kellas, early expeditions, the first ascent in 1955, the Indian Army ascent (1977), the second British ascent (1979), women climbers, the Tiger climbers, the yeti, and more. Profusely illustrated with many period photos.</p><br>
<p>The Geographer at High Altitudes, "Climbing on the Himalaya and other Mountain Ranges", By J. Norman Collie, F.R.S. Edinburgh: David Douglas. 1902.</p><br>
<p>The Glaciers of Kangchenjunga Douglas Freshfield The Geographical Journal, Vol. 19, No. 4 Apr., 1902, pp. 453–472</p><br>
<p>Round Kangchenjunga. A Narrative of Mountain Travel and Exploration, Douglas W. Freshfield Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, Vol. 36, No. 2 1904</p><br>
<p>C. K. Howard-Bury. 1922. The Mount Everest Expedition. The Geographical Journal 59 (2): 81–99.</p><br>
<p>"General Bruce&#39;s Illness a Serious handicap" "The Times", (British) World Copyright, Lt. R.F.Norton, 19 April 1924. Expedition in the Kangchenjunga area.</p><br>
<p>Account of a Photographic Expedition to the Southern Glaciers of Kangchenjunga in the Sikkim Himalaya, N. A. Tombazi, The Geographical Journal, Vol. 67, No. 1 Jan., 1926, pp. 74–76</p><br>
<p>An Adventure to Kangchenjunga, Hugh Boustead, The Geographical Journal, Vol. 69, No. 4 (Apr., 1927), pp. 344–350</p><br>
<p>The Times Literary Supplement, Thursday, 11 December 1930. "The Kangchenjunga Adventure", F.S. Smythe.</p><br>
<p>Im Kampf um den Himalaja, Paul Bauer. The Kangchenjunga Adventure, F. S. Smythe, Himalaya: Unsere Expedition, G. O. Dyhrenfurth. 1930</p><br>
<p>The Times Literary Supplement, Thursday, 9 April 1931. "Kangchenjunga", Paul Bauer.</p><br>
<p>The Imperial Gazetteer of India. Vol. XXVI, The Geographical Journal, Vol. 79, No. 1 Jan., 1932, pp. 53–56</p><br>
<p>Recent Heroes of Modern Adventure, T. C. Bridges; H. Hessell Tiltman, The Geographical Journal, Vol. 81, No. 6 Jun., 1933, p. 568</p><br>
<p>Paul Bauer 1931. Um Den Kantsch: der zweite deutsche Angriff auf den Kangchendzönga, The Geographical Journal, Vol. 81, No. 4 Apr., 1933, pp. 362–363</p><br>
<p>Paul Bauer; Sumner Austin 1938. Himalayan Campaign: The German Attack on Kangchenjunga, The Geographical Journal, Vol. 91, No. 5: 478</p><br>
<p>Charles Evans; George Band 1956. Kangchenjunga Climbed. The Geographical Journal 122 (1): 1–12.</p><br>
<p>Charles Evans 1956. "Kangchenjunga: The Untrodden Peak". The Times Literary Supplement.</p><br>
<p>Lou Whittaker, Memoirs of a Mountain guide, 1994</p><br>
<p>Krakatoa, or Krakatau , is a volcanic island situated in the Sunda Strait between the islands of Java and Sumatra in the Indonesian province of Lampung. The name is also used for the surrounding island group comprising the remnants of a much larger island of three volcanic peaks which was obliterated in a cataclysmic 1883 eruption.</p><br>
<p>In 1927, a new island, Anak Krakatau, or "Child of Krakatoa", emerged from the caldera formed in 1883 and is the current location of eruptive activity.</p><br>
<h2>Historical significance</h2><br>
<p>The most notable eruptions of Krakatoa culminated in a series of massive explosions over August 26–27, 1883, which were among the most violent volcanic events in recorded history.</p><br>
<p>With an estimated Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 6, the eruption was equivalent to 200 MtonTNT&mdash;about 13,000 times the nuclear yield of the Little Boy bomb (13 to 16 kt) that devastated Hiroshima, Japan, during World War II, and four times the yield of Tsar Bomba (50 Mt), the most powerful nuclear device ever detonated.</p><br>
<p>The 1883 eruption ejected approximately 6 mi3 of rock. The cataclysmic explosion was heard 4,800 km away in Alice Springs, as well as on the island of Rodrigues near Mauritius, 4,653 km to the west.</p><br>
<p>According to the official records of the Dutch East Indies colony, 165 villages and towns were destroyed near Krakatoa, and 132 were seriously damaged. At least 36,417 people died, and many more thousands were injured, mostly from the tsunamis that followed the explosion. The eruption destroyed two-thirds of the island of Krakatoa.</p><br>
<p>Eruptions in the area since 1927 have built a new island at the same location, named Anak Krakatau (which is Indonesian for "Child of Krakatoa"). Periodic eruptions have continued since, with recent eruptions in 2009, 2010, 2011, and 2012. As of late 2011, this island has a radius of roughly 2 km, and a highest point of about 324 m above sea level, growing 5 m each year.</p><br>
<p>In 2017 the height of Anak Krakatau was reported as over 400 metres above sea level.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>Although there are earlier descriptions of an island in the Sunda Strait with a "pointed mountain," the earliest mention of Krakatoa by name in the western world was on a 1611 map by Lucas Janszoon Waghenaer, who labelled the island "Pulo Carcata" (pulo is the Sundanese word for "island"). About two dozen variants have been found, including Crackatouw, Cracatoa, and Krakatao (in an older Portuguese-based spelling). The first known appearance of the spelling Krakatau was by Wouter Schouten, who passed by "the high tree-covered island of Krakatau" in October 1658.</p><br>
<p>The origin of the Indonesian name Krakatau is uncertain.Note:The main theories are:</p><br>
<p>Onomatopoeia, imitating the noise made by cockatoos (Kakatoes) which used to inhabit the island. However, Van den Berg points out that these birds are found only in the "eastern part of the archipelago" (meaning the Lesser Sundas, east of Java, on the other side of the Wallace Line).</p><br>
<p>From Sanskrit karka or karkata or karkataka, meaning "lobster" or "crab". (Rakata also means "crab" in the older Javan language.) This is considered the most likely origin.</p><br>
<p>The closest Malay word is kelakatu, meaning "white-winged ant". Furneaux points out that in pre-1883 maps, Krakatoa does somewhat resemble an ant seen from above, with Lang and Verlaten lying to the sides like wings.</p><br>
<p>Van den Berg (1884) recites a story that Krakatau was the result of a linguistic error. According to the legend, a visiting ships captain asked a local inhabitant the islands name, and the latter replied, "Kaga tau" (Aku enggak tahu)—a Jakartan/Betawinese slang phrase meaning "I don&#39;t know". This story is largely discounted; it closely resembles other linguistic myths about the origin of the word kangaroo and the name of the Yucatán Peninsula.</p><br>
<p>The Smithsonian Institution&#39;s Global Volcanism Program cites the Indonesian name, Krakatau, as the correct name, but says that Krakatoa is often employed. While Krakatoa is more common in the English-speaking world, the Indonesian Krakatau tends to be favored by others, including geologists.</p><br>
<h2>Geographical setting</h2><br>
<p>Indonesia has over 130 active volcanoes, the most of any nation. They make up the axis of the Indonesian island arc system, which was produced by northeastward subduction of the Indo-Australian Plate. A majority of these volcanoes lie along Indonesia&#39;s two largest islands, Java and Sumatra. These two islands are separated by the Sunda Strait, which is located at a bend in the axis of the island arc. Krakatoa is directly above the subduction zone of the Eurasian Plate and the Indo-Australian Plate where the plate boundaries make a sharp change of direction, possibly resulting in an unusually weak crust in the region.</p><br>
<h2>Pre-1883 history</h2><br>
<p>At some point in prehistory, an earlier caldera-forming eruption had occurred, leaving as remnants Verlaten (or Sertung); Lang (also known as Rakata Kecil, or Panjang); Poolsche Hoed; ("Polish Hat") and the base of Rakata. Later, at least two more cones (Perboewatan and Danan) formed and eventually joined with Rakata, forming the main island of Krakatoa. At the time of the 1883 eruption, the Krakatoa group comprised Lang, Verlaten, and Krakatoa itself, an island 9 km long by 5 km wide. There were also the tree-covered islet near Lang (Poolsche Hoed) and several small rocky islets or banks between Krakatoa and Verlaten.</p><br>
<p>There were three volcanic cones on Krakatoa island: Rakata, (820 m) to the south; Danan, (450 m) near the center; and Perboewatan, (120 m) to the north.</p><br>
<h3>416 AD event</h3><br>
<p>The Javanese Book of Kings (Pustaka Raja) records that in the year 338 Saka (416 AD):</p><br>
<p>There is no geological evidence of a Krakatoa eruption of this size around that time; it may describe loss of land which previously joined Java to Sumatra across what is now the narrow east end of the Sunda Strait; or it may be a mistaken date, referring to a later eruption in 535 AD, for which there is some corroborating historical evidence.</p><br>
<h3>535 AD event</h3><br>
<p>David Keys, Ken Wohletz, and others have postulated that a violent volcanic eruption, possibly of Krakatoa, in 535 may have been responsible for the global climate changes of 535–536. Keys explores what he believes to be the radical and far-ranging global effects of just such a putative 6th-century eruption in his book Catastrophe: An Investigation into the Origins of the Modern World. Additionally, in recent times, it has been argued that it was this eruption which created the islands of Verlaten, Lang, and the beginnings of Rakata—all indicators of early Krakatoas calderas size. To date, however, little datable charcoal from that eruption has been found.</p><br>
<p>Thornton mentions that Krakatoa was known as "The Fire Mountain" during Java&#39;s Sailendra dynasty, with records of seven eruptive events between the 9th and 16th centuries. These have been tentatively dated as having occurred in 850, 950, 1050, 1150, 1320, and 1530.</p><br>
<h3>1680</h3><br>
<p>In February 1681, Johann Wilhelm Vogel, a Dutch mining engineer at Salida, Sumatra (near Padang), on his way to Batavia (modern Jakarta) passed through the Sunda Strait. In his diary he wrote:</p><br>
<p>Vogel spent several months in Batavia, returning to Sumatra in November 1681. On the same ship were several other Dutch travellers, including Elias Hesse, a writer. Hesse&#39;s journal reports:</p><br>
<p>The eruption was also reported by a Bengali sea captain, who wrote of the event later, but who had not recorded it at the time in the ship&#39;s log. Neither Vogel nor Hesse mention Krakatoa in any real detail in their other passages, and no other travelers at the time mention an eruption or evidence of one. (In November 1681, a pepper crop was being offered for sale by inhabitants.) In 1880, Verbeek investigated a fresh unweathered lava flow at the northern coast of Perboewatan, which could not have been more than two centuries old.</p><br>
<h3>Visit by HMS Discovery</h3><br>
<p>In February 1780 the crews of and, on the way home after Captain James Cook&#39;s death in Hawaii, stopped for a few days on Krakatoa. They found two springs on the island, one fresh water and the other hot. They described the natives who then lived on the island as "friendly" and made several sketches. (In his journal, John Ledyard calls the island "Cocoterra.")</p><br>
<h3>Visit by USS Peacock</h3><br>
<p>Edmund Roberts calls the island Crokatoa in his journal. A paraphrased account follows: On 8 September 1832, US sloop-of war Peacock anchored off the north end, also visiting Long Island, in search of inhabitants, fresh water, and yams. It was found difficult to effect a landing anywhere, owing to a heavy surf and to the coral having extended itself to a considerable distance from the shore. Hot springs boiling furiously up, through many fathoms of water, were found on the eastern side of Krakatoa, 150 feet from the shore. Roberts, Captain Geisinger, and marine Lieutenant Fowler visited Forsaken island, having mistaken the singing of locusts for the sound of running water. The boat glided over crystal clear water, over an extensive and highly beautiful submarine garden. Corals of every shape and hue were there; some resembling sunflowers and mushrooms; others, cabbages from an inch to three feet in diameter: while a third bore a striking likeness to the rose. The hillsides were typical of tropical climate; large flocks of parrots, monkeys in great variety, wild-mango and orange groves—a superb scene of plants and flowers of every description, glowing in vivid tints of purple, red, blue, brown, and green—but not the so-much-needed supply of water and provisions.</p><br>
<h3>Dutch activity</h3><br>
<p>In 1620 the Dutch set up a naval station on the islands and somewhat later a shipyard was built. Sometime in the late 17th century an attempt was made to establish a pepper plantation on Krakatoa but the islands were generally ignored by the Dutch East India Company. In 1809 a penal colony was established at an unspecified location, which was in operation for about a decade. By the 1880s the islands were without permanent inhabitants; the nearest settlement was the nearby island of Sebesi (about 12 km away) with a population of 3,000.</p><br>
<p>Several surveys and mariners&#39; charts were made, and the islands were little explored or studied. An 1854 map of the islands was used in an English chart, which shows some difference from a Dutch chart made in 1874. In July 1880, Rogier Verbeek, made an official survey of the islands but he was only allowed to spend a few hours there. He was able to collect samples from several places, and his investigation proved important in judging the geological impact of the 1883 eruption.</p><br>
<h2>1883 eruption</h2><br>
<p>While seismic activity around the volcano was intense in the years preceding the cataclysmic 1883 eruption, a series of lesser eruptions began on May 20, 1883. The volcano released huge plumes of steam and ash lasting until late August.</p><br>
<p>On August 27 a series of four huge explosions almost entirely destroyed the island. The explosions were so violent that they were heard 3,110 km away in Perth, Western Australia, and the island of Rodrigues near Mauritius, 4,800 km away. The pressure wave from the final explosion was recorded on barographs around the world. Several barographs recorded the wave seven times over the course of five days: four times with the wave travelling away from the volcano to its antipodal point, and three times travelling back to the volcano. Hence, the wave rounded the globe three and a half times. Ash was propelled to a height of 80 km. The sound of the eruption was so loud it was reported that if anyone was within 10 mi, they would have gone deaf.</p><br>
<p>The combined effects of pyroclastic flows, volcanic ashes, and tsunamis had disastrous results in the region and worldwide. The death toll recorded by the Dutch authorities was 36,417, although some sources put the estimate at more than 120,000. There are numerous documented reports of groups of human skeletons floating across the Indian Ocean on rafts of volcanic pumice and washing up on the east coast of Africa up to a year after the eruption. Average global temperatures fell by as much as 1.2 degrees Celsius in the year following the eruption. Weather patterns continued to be chaotic for years and temperatures did not return to normal until 1888.</p><br>
<h2>Subsequent volcanism</h2><br>
<h3>Anak Krakatau</h3><br>
<p>Verbeek, in his report on the eruption, predicted that any new activity would manifest itself in the region which had been between Perboewatan and Danan. This prediction came true on 29 December 1927, when a submarine lava dome in the area of Perboewatan showed evidence of eruptions (an earlier event in the same area had been reported in June 1927). A new island volcano rose above the waterline a few days later. The eruptions were initially of pumice and ash, and that island and the two islands that followed were quickly eroded away by the sea. Eventually a fourth island named Anak Krakatau broke water in August 1930 and produced lava flows faster than the waves could erode them. These new islands are of considerable interest to volcanologists, and have been the subject of extensive study.</p><br>
<h3>Current activity</h3><br>
<p>Anak Krakatau has grown at an average rate of five inches (13 cm) per week since the 1950s. This equates to an average growth of 6.8 meters per year. The island is still active, with its most recent eruptive episode having begun in 1994. Quiet periods of a few days have alternated with almost continuous Strombolian eruptions since then.</p><br>
<p>Hot gases, rocks, and lava were released in an eruption in April 2008. Scientists monitoring the volcano have warned people to stay out of a 3 km zone around the island. Several videos of Krakatoa on YouTube show recent footage of eruptions and of the inside of the crater as seen from the rim of the volcano.</p><br>
<p>On 6 May 2009, the Volcanological Survey of Indonesia raised the eruption alert status of Anak Krakatau to Level III. A recent expedition to the volcano has revealed that a 100 m-wide lava dome is growing in its crater. The dome has two active vents that eject incandescent gas.</p><br>
<h2>Biological research</h2><br>
<p>The islands have become a major case study of island biogeography and founder populations in an ecosystem being built from the ground up in an environment virtually cleaned.</p><br>
<p>The islands had been little studied or biologically surveyed before the 1883 catastrophe—only two pre-1883 biological collections are known: one of plant specimens and the other part of a shell collection. From descriptions and drawings made by the HMS Discovery, the flora appears to have been representative of a typical Javan tropical climax forest. The pre-1883 fauna is virtually unknown but was probably typical of the smaller islands in the area.</p><br>
<h3>Botanical studies</h3><br>
<p>From a biological perspective, the Krakatau problem refers to the question of whether the islands were completely sterilized by the 1883 eruption or whether some indigenous life survived. When the first researchers reached the islands in May 1884, the only living thing they found was a spider in a crevice on the south side of Rakata. Life quickly recolonized the islands, however; Verbeeks visit in October 1884 found grass shoots already growing. The eastern side of the island has been extensively vegetated by trees and shrubs, presumably brought there as seeds washed up by ocean currents or carried in birds droppings (or brought by natives and scientific investigators). It is, however, in a somewhat fragile position, and the vegetated area has been badly damaged by recent eruptions.</p><br>
<h3>Handl's occupancy</h3><br>
<p>A German, Johann Handl, obtained a permit to mine pumice in October 1916. His lease of 8.7 km&sup2; (basically the eastern half of the island), was to be for 30 years. He occupied the south slope of Rakata from 1915 to 1917, when he left due to "violation of the terms of the lease." (According to Winchester, Handl arrived in 1917 and stayed there for four years.) Handl built a house and planted a garden with "4 European families and about 30 coolies". It is his party that is believed to have inadvertently introduced the black rat to the island. Handl found unburned wood below the 1883 ash deposits while digging, and fresh water was found below 18 ft.</p><br>
<h2>Popular culture</h2><br>
<p>A large part of the 1947 children&#39;s novel The Twenty-One Balloons by William Pene du Bois takes place on Krakatoa, where several families have established a wealthy and fanciful colony based on fictional diamond mines on the island.</p><br>
<p>Krakatoa has been featured as a subject and a part of the story in various television and film dramas. In the 1953 film Fair Wind to Java, an American sea captain and a pirate leader race one another to recover a fortune in diamonds hidden on Krakatoa, which begins its final eruption as they search the island for the treasure. The island was a prominent part of the plot of &#39;"Crack of Doom," an episode of the Irwin Allen television series The Time Tunnel in 1966. It was also featured as the main part of the story line in the 1969 film, Krakatoa, East of Java (retitled Volcano in a re-release in the 1970s), which depicts an effort to salvage a priceless cargo of pearls located perilously close to the erupting volcano. An Indonesian martial arts action film, Krakatau (1977), starring Dicky Zulkarnaen and Advent Bangun, also set the story on the mountain. In more recent years, it has been the subject of a 2006 television drama, Krakatoa: Volcano of Destruction and again in 2008 as Krakatoa.</p><br>
<p>In Klaus Teuber&#39;s board game Seafarers of Catan, the "Krakatoa Variant" is a scenario involving an island composed of three volcano tiles.</p><br>
<p>The Khuriya Muriya Islands   are a group of five islands in the Arabian Sea, 40 km off the southeastern coast of the Sultanate of Oman. The islands form part of the province of Shalim and the Hallaniyat Islands in the governorate of Dhofar.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In antiquity the islands were called the Zenobii or Zenobiou Islands (Ζηνοβίου νησία; Zenobii Insulae) or Doliche (Δολίχη). The islands were mentioned by several early writers including Ptolemy (vi. 7. § 47) who numbered them as seven small islands lying in Khuriya Muriya Bay (Σαχαλίτης κόλπος; Sinus Sachalites), towards the entrance of the "Persian Gulf" (most likely the modern Gulf of Aden).</p><br>
<p>In 1854 the sultan of Muscat (later Muscat and Oman now Oman) presented the islands to Queen Victoria as a gift and responsibility for the islands was granted to the Bombay government in British India. There was some concern at the time that the deed of cession was null since the sultan had no rights over the archipelago. The Red Sea and India Telegraph Company, formed in 1858, intended to use one of the islands as a base for a telegraph connection between Aden and Karachi but the project was abandoned in 1861 after sections of the cable failed. A group of Liverpool entrepreneurs were granted monopoly rights to harvest the abundant guano deposits, but after having met resistance from the local inhabitants who considered that resource theirs, and questions in the British parliament about the advisability of granting monopoly rights to anyone, the mining was abandoned after some 200,000 tons had been extracted between 1855 and 1860. During that period, the archipelago presented a busy scene, with up to 52 ships present on one occasion. When Colonel Miles visited the archipelago in 1883, less than 40 inhabitants lived on Al-Hallaniyah, the main island. The islanders lived in huts of unmortared stone with mat roofs, and at certain seasons they moved to caves. They lived on fish, shellfish and goat&#39;s milk, occasionally exchanging dried fish for dates and rice from passing ships. They fished entirely with hooks since they had neither boat nor nets.</p><br>
<p>In 1886, the islands were attached administratively to Aden. Due to their remoteness, the lack of anchorages and the fact that the inhabitants continued to consider themselves subjects of the Sultan of Muscat, the islands remained un-administered and, for decades, were only sporadically visited by British officials. While technically part of Aden Colony, the islands, because of their remoteness and inaccessibly, were left to the supervision of the British Resident in the Persian Gulf. As a British possession until 1967, they were administered by the Governor of Aden until 1953, then by the British High Commissioner until 1963, and finally by the British Chief Political Resident of the Persian Gulf (based in Bahrain). On 30 November 1967, Lord Caradon, the British Ambassador to the United Nations, announced that in accordance with the wishes of the local inhabitants, the islands would be returned to Muscat and Oman, despite criticism from President Qahtan Muhammad al-Shaabi that the islands should be transferred to the Peoples Republic of South Yemen. The boundary between the two countries was not formally settled until 1995 when it was agreed that the islands were on Omans side of the line.</p><br>
<h2>Islands</h2><br>
<p>K2 , also known as Mount Godwin-Austen or Chhogori , is the second highest mountain in the world, after Mount Everest , at 8,611 m above sea level. It is located on the ChinaPakistan border between Baltistan, in the Gilgit-Baltistan region of northern Pakistan, and the Taxkorgan Tajik Autonomous County of Xinjiang, China. K2 is the highest point of the Karakoram range and the highest point in both Pakistan and Xinjiang.</p><br>
<p>K2 is known as the Savage Mountain due to the extreme difficulty of ascent. It has the second-highest fatality rate among the eight thousanders. With around 300 successful summits and 77 fatalities, about one person dies on the mountain for every four who summit. It is more difficult and hazardous to reach the peak of K2 from the Chinese side, so it is usually climbed from the Pakistani side. Unlike Annapurna, the mountain with the highest fatality-to-summit rate (191 summits and 61 fatalities), or the other eight thousanders, K2 has never been climbed during winter. Ascents have almost always been made in July and August (the warmest times of year); K2&#39;s more northern location makes it more susceptible to inclement and colder weather.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The name K2 is derived from the notation used by the Great Trigonometric Survey of British India. Thomas Montgomerie made the first survey of the Karakoram from Mount Haramukh, some 130 mi to the south, and sketched the two most prominent peaks, labeling them K1 and K2.</p><br>
<p>The policy of the Great Trigonometric Survey was to use local names for mountains wherever possible and K1 was found to be known locally as Masherbrum. K2, however, appeared not to have acquired a local name, possibly due to its remoteness. The mountain is not visible from Askole, the last village to the south, or from the nearest habitation to the north, and is only fleetingly glimpsed from the end of the Baltoro Glacier, beyond which few local people would have ventured. The name Chogori, derived from two Balti words, chhogo ("big") and ri ("mountain") (چھوغوری) has been suggested as a local name, but evidence for its widespread use is scant. It may have been a compound name invented by Western explorers or simply a bemused reply to the question "What&#39;s that called?" It does, however, form the basis for the name Qogir by which Chinese authorities officially refer to the peak. Other local names have been suggested including Lamba Pahar ("Tall Mountain" in Urdu) and Dapsang, but are not widely used.</p><br>
<p>Lacking a local name, the name Mount Godwin-Austen was suggested, in honor of Henry Godwin-Austen, an early explorer of the area. While the name was rejected by the Royal Geographical Society, it was used on several maps, and continues to be used occasionally.</p><br>
<p>The surveyor&#39;s mark, K2, therefore continues to be the name by which the mountain is commonly known. It is now also used in the Balti language, rendered as Kechu or Ketu (کے ٹو). The Italian climber Fosco Maraini argued in his account of the ascent of Gasherbrum IV that while the name of K2 owes its origin to chance, its clipped, impersonal nature is highly appropriate for so remote and challenging a mountain. He concluded that it was:</p><br>
<p>Andre Weil named K3 surfaces in mathematics partly after the mountain K2.</p><br>
<h2>Geographical setting</h2><br>
<p>K2 lies in the northwestern Karakoram Range. It is located in the Baltistan region of Gilgit–Baltistan, Pakistan, and the Taxkorgan Tajik Autonomous County of Xinjiang, China. The Tarim sedimentary basin borders the range on the north and the Lesser Himalayas on the south. Melt waters from vast glaciers, such as those south and east of K2, feed agriculture in the valleys and contribute significantly to the regional fresh-water supply.</p><br>
<p>K2 is merely ranked 22nd by topographic prominence, a measure of a mountain&#39;s independent stature, because it is part of the same extended area of uplift (including the Karakoram, the Tibetan Plateau, and the Himalaya) as Mount Everest, in that it is possible to follow a path from K2 to Everest that goes no lower than 4,594 m, at the Kora La on the Nepal/China border in the Mustang Lo. Many other peaks that are far lower than K2 are more independent in this sense. It is, however, the most prominent peak within the Karakoram range.</p><br>
<p>K2 is notable for its local relief as well as its total height. It stands over 3,000 m above much of the glacial valley bottoms at its base. It is a consistently steep pyramid, dropping quickly in almost all directions. The north side is the steepest: there it rises over 3,200 m above the K2 (Qogir) Glacier in only 3,000 m of horizontal distance. In most directions, it achieves over 2,800 m of vertical relief in less than 4,000 m.</p><br>
<p>A 1986 expedition led by George Wallerstein made an inaccurate measurement incorrectly showing that K2 was taller than Mount Everest, and therefore the tallest mountain in the world. A corrected measurement was made in 1987, but by that point the claim that K2 was the tallest mountain in the world had already made it into many news reports and reference works.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The mountains of K2 and Broad Peak, and the area westward to the lower reaches of Sarpo Laggo glacier consist of metamorphic rocks, known as the K2 Gneiss and part of the Karakroam Metamorphic Complex. The K2 Gneiss consists of a mixture of orthogneiss and biotite-rich paragneiss. On the south and southeast face of K2, the orthogneiss consists of a mixture of a strongly foliated plagioclase-hornblende gneiss and a biotite-hornblende-K-feldspar orthogneiss, which has been intruded by garnet-mica leucogranitic dikes. In places, the paragneisses include clinopyroxene-hornblende-bearing psammites, garnet (grossular)-diopside marbles, and biotite-graphite phyllites. Near the memorial to the climbers, who have died on K2, above Base Camp on the south spur, thin impure marbles with quartzites and mica schists, called the Gilkey-Puchoz sequence, are interbanded within the orthogneisses. On the west face of Broad Peak and south spur of K2, lamprophyre dikes, which consist of clinopyroxene and biotite-porphyritic vogesites and minettes, have intruded the K2 gneiss. The K2 Gneiss is separated from the surrounding sedimentary and metasedimentary rocks of the surrounding Karakoram Metamorphic Complex by normal faults. For example, a fault separates the K2 gneiss of the east face of K2 from limestones and slates comprising nearby Skyang Kangri.</p><br>
<p>Ar/Ar ages of 115 to 120 million years ago obtained from and geochemical analyses of the K2 Gneiss demonstrate that it is a metamorphosed, older, Cretaceous, pre-collisional granite. The granitic precursor (protolith) to the K2 Gneiss originated as the result of the production of large bodies of magma by a northward-dipping subduction zone along what was the continental margin of Asia at that time and their intrusion as batholiths into its lower continental crust. During the initial collision of the Asia and Indian plates, this granitic batholith was buried to depths of about 20 km or more, highly metamorphosed, highly deformed, and partially remelted during the Eocene Period to form gneiss. Later, the K2 Gneiss was then intruded by leucogranite dikes and finally exhumed and uplifted along major breakback thrust faults during post-Miocene time. The K2 Gneiss was exposed as the entire K2-Broad Peak-Gasherbrum range experienced rapid uplift with which erosion rates have been unable to keep pace.</p><br>
<h2>Climbing history</h2><br>
<h3>Early attempts</h3><br>
<p>The mountain was first surveyed by a European survey team in 1856. Team member Thomas Montgomerie designated the mountain "K2" for being the second peak of the Karakoram range. The other peaks were originally named K1, K3, K4, and K5, but were eventually renamed Masherbrum, Gasherbrum IV, Gasherbrum II, and Gasherbrum I, respectively. In 1892, Martin Conway led a British expedition that reached "Concordia" on the Baltoro Glacier.</p><br>
<p>The first serious attempt to climb K2 was undertaken in 1902 by Oscar Eckenstein, Aleister Crowley, Jules Jacot-Guillarmod, Heinrich Pfannl, Victor Wessely, and Guy Knowles via the Northeast Ridge. In the early 1900s, modern transportation did not exist: it took "fourteen days just to reach the foot of the mountain".</p><br>
<p>After five serious and costly attempts, the team reached 6,525 m—although considering the difficulty of the challenge, and the lack of modern climbing equipment or weatherproof fabrics, Crowley&#39;s statement that "neither man nor beast was injured" highlights the pioneering spirit and bravery of the attempt. The failures were also attributed to sickness (Crowley was suffering the residual effects of malaria), a combination of questionable physical training, personality conflicts, and poor weather conditions—of 68 days spent on K2 (at the time, the record for the longest time spent at such an altitude) only eight provided clear weather.</p><br>
<p>The next expedition to K2, in 1909, led by Prince Luigi Amedeo, Duke of the Abruzzi, reached an elevation of around 6,250 m on the South East Spur, now known as the Abruzzi Spur (or Abruzzi Ridge). This would eventually become part of the standard route but was abandoned at the time due to its steepness and difficulty. After trying and failing to find a feasible alternative route on the West Ridge or the North East Ridge, the Duke declared that K2 would never be climbed, and the team switched its attention to Chogolisa, where the Duke came within 150 m of the summit before being driven back by a storm.</p><br>
<p>The next attempt on K2 was not made until 1938, when an American expedition led by Charles Houston made a reconnaissance of the mountain. They concluded that the Abruzzi Spur was the most practical route and reached a height of around 8,000 m before turning back due to diminishing supplies and the threat of bad weather.</p><br>
<p>The following year, an expedition led by Fritz Wiessner came within 200 m of the summit but ended in disaster when Dudley Wolfe, Pasang Kikuli, Pasang Kitar, and Pintso disappeared high on the mountain.</p><br>
<p>Charles Houston returned to K2 to lead the 1953 American expedition. The expedition failed due to a storm that pinned the team down for 10 days at 7,800 m, during which time Art Gilkey became critically ill. A desperate retreat followed, during which Pete Schoening saved almost the entire team during a mass fall, and Gilkey was killed, either in an avalanche or in a deliberate attempt to avoid burdening his companions. Despite the failure and tragedy, the courage shown by the team has given the expedition iconic status in mountaineering history.</p><br>
<h3>Success and repeats</h3><br>
<p>An Italian expedition finally succeeded in ascending to the summit of K2 via the Abruzzi Spur on 31 July 1954. The expedition was led by Ardito Desio, and the two climbers who reached the summit were Lino Lacedelli and Achille Compagnoni. The team included a Pakistani member, Colonel Muhammad Ata-ullah, who had been a part of the 1953 American expedition. Also on the expedition were Walter Bonatti and Pakistani Hunza porter Amir Mehdi, who both proved vital to the expeditions success in that they carried oxygen tanks to 8,100 m for Lacedelli and Compagnoni. The ascent is controversial because Lacedelli and Compagnoni established their camp at a higher elevation than originally agreed with Mehdi and Bonatti. It being too dark to ascend or descend, Mehdi and Bonatti were forced to overnight without shelter above 8,000 meters leaving the oxygen tanks behind as requested when they descended. Bonatti and Mehdi survived, but Mehdi was hospitalized for months and had to have his toes amputated because of frostbite. Efforts in the 1950s to suppress these facts to protect Lacedelli and Compagnonis reputations as Italian national heroes were later brought to light. It was also revealed that the moving of the camp was deliberate, a move apparently made because Compagnoni feared being outshone by the younger Bonatti. Bonatti was given the blame for Mehdi&#39;s hospitalization.</p><br>
<p>On 9 August 1977, 23 years after the Italian expedition, Ichiro Yoshizawa led the second successful ascent, with Ashraf Aman as the first native Pakistani climber. The Japanese expedition took the Abruzzi Spur, and used more than 1,500 porters.</p><br>
<p>The third ascent of K2 was in 1978, via a new route, the long and corniced Northeast Ridge. The top of the route traversed left across the East Face to avoid a vertical headwall and joined the uppermost part of the Abruzzi route. This ascent was made by an American team, led by James Whittaker; the summit party was Louis Reichardt, Jim Wickwire, John Roskelley, and Rick Ridgeway. Wickwire endured an overnight bivouac about 150 m below the summit, one of the highest bivouacs in history. This ascent was emotional for the American team, as they saw themselves as completing a task that had been begun by the 1938 team forty years earlier.</p><br>
<p>Another notable Japanese ascent was that of the difficult North Ridge on the Chinese side of the peak in 1982. A team from the Mountaineering Association of Japan led by Isao Shinkai and Masatsugo Konishi put three members, Naoe Sakashita, Hiroshi Yoshino, and Yukihiro Yanagisawa, on the summit on 14 August. However Yanagisawa fell and died on the descent. Four other members of the team achieved the summit the next day.</p><br>
<p>The first climber to reach the summit of K2 twice was Czech climber Josef Rakoncaj. Rakoncaj was a member of the 1983 Italian expedition led by Francesco Santon, which made the second successful ascent of the North Ridge (31 July 1983). Three years later, on 5 July 1986, he reached the summit via the Abruzzi Spur (double with Broad Peak West Face solo) as a member of Agostino da Polenza&#39;s international expedition.</p><br>
<p>The first woman to summit K2 was Pole Wanda Rutkiewicz on 23 June 1986. Liliane and Maurice Barrard who had summitted later that day, fell during the descent; Liliane&#39;s body was found on July 19 at the foot of the south face.</p><br>
<p>In 1986, two Polish expeditions climbed via two new routes, the Magic Line and the Polish Line (Jerzy Kukuczka and Tadeusz Piotrowski). This second has not yet been repeated.</p><br>
<p>In 2004 the Spanish climber Carlos Soria Fontán became the oldest person ever to summit K2, at the age of 65.</p><br>
<p>The peak has now been climbed by almost all of its ridges. Although the summit of Everest is at a higher altitude, K2 is a much more difficult and dangerous climb, due in part to its more inclement weather and comparatively greater height from base to peak. The mountain is believed by many to be the world&#39;s most difficult and dangerous climb, hence its nickname "the Savage Mountain"., only 302 people have completed the ascent, compared with over 2,700 who have ascended Everest. At least 80 (as of September 2010) people have died attempting the climb.</p><br>
<p>Thirteen climbers from several expeditions died in the 1986 K2 Disaster. Another six mountaineers died on 13 August 1995, while eleven climbers died in the 2008 K2 disaster.</p><br>
<h3>Recent attempts</h3><br>
<h3>Winter expedition</h3><br>
<p>1987/1988 - Polish-Canadian-British expedition led by Andrzej Zawada from the Pakistani side. The trip came 13 Poles, 7 Canadians and 4 British. March 2 Krzysztof Wielicki and Leszek Cichy established camp III at 7300 meters above sea level</p><br>
<p>2002/2003 - Netia K2 Polish-Winter Expedition. Expedition leader Krzysztof Wielicki. Excursion reached 7650 m</p><br>
<p>2011/2012 - Russian Expedition consists of nine climbers manager and physician has reached the height of 7200 m. Ended in death of Vitali Gorelik</p><br>
<h2>Climbing routes and difficulties</h2><br>
<p>There are a number of routes on K2, of somewhat different character, but they all share some key difficulties. The first being the extremely high altitude and resulting lack of oxygen: there is only one-third as much oxygen available to a climber on the summit of K2 as there is at sea level.</p><br>
<p>The second is the propensity of the mountain to experience extreme storms of several days duration, which have resulted in many of the deaths on the peak. The third is the steep, exposed, and committing nature of all routes on the mountain, which makes retreat more difficult, especially during a storm. Despite many attempts there have been no successful winter ascents. All major climbing routes lie on the Pakistani side, which is also where base camp is located.</p><br>
<h3>Abruzzi Spur</h3><br>
<p>The standard route of ascent, used far more than any other route (75% of all climbers use this route) is the Abruzzi Spur, located on the Pakistani side, first attempted by Prince Luigi Amedeo, Duke of the Abruzzi in 1909. This is the southeast ridge of the peak, rising above the Godwin Austen Glacier. The spur proper begins at an altitude of 5,400 m, where Advanced Base Camp is usually placed. The route follows an alternating series of rock ribs, snow/ice fields, and some technical rock climbing on two famous features, "House&#39;s Chimney" and the "Black Pyramid." Above the Black Pyramid, dangerously exposed and difficult to navigate slopes lead to the easily visible "Shoulder", and thence to the summit. The last major obstacle is a narrow couloir known as the "Bottleneck", which places climbers dangerously close to a wall of seracs which form an ice cliff to the east of the summit. It was partly due to the collapse of one of these seracs around 2001 that no climbers summitted the peak in 2002 and 2003.</p><br>
<p>On 1 August 2008, 11 climbers from several expeditions died during a series of accidents, including several ice falls in the Bottleneck.</p><br>
<h3>North Ridge</h3><br>
<p>Almost opposite from the Abruzzi Spur is the North Ridge, which ascends the Chinese side of the peak. It is rarely climbed, partly due to very difficult access, involving crossing the Shaksgam River, which is a hazardous undertaking. In contrast to the crowds of climbers and trekkers at the Abruzzi basecamp, usually at most two teams are encamped below the North Ridge. This route, more technically difficult than the Abruzzi, ascends a long, steep, primarily rock ridge to high on the mountain—Camp IV, the "Eagle&#39;s Nest" at 7,900 m—and then crosses a dangerously slide-prone hanging glacier by a leftward climbing traverse, to reach a snow couloir which accesses the summit.</p><br>
<p>Besides the original Japanese ascent, a notable ascent of the North Ridge was the one in 1990 by Greg Child, Greg Mortimer, and Steve Swenson, which was done alpine style above Camp 2, though using some fixed ropes already put in place by a Japanese team.</p><br>
<h3>Other routes</h3><br>
<p>Because 75% of people who climb K2 use the Abruzzi Spur, these listed routes are rarely climbed. No one has climbed the East Face of the mountain, due to the instability of the snow and ice formations on that side.</p><br>
<h3>Use of supplemental oxygen</h3><br>
<p>For most of its climbing history, K2 was not usually climbed with supplemental oxygen, and small, relatively lightweight teams were the norm. However the 2004 season saw a great increase in the use of oxygen: 28 of 47 summitteers used oxygen in that year.</p><br>
<p>Acclimatisation is essential when climbing without oxygen to avoid some degree of altitude sickness.</p><br>
<p>K2&#39;s summit is well above the altitude at which high altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE), or high altitude cerebral edema (HACE) can occur. In mountaineering, when ascending above an altitude of 8,000 m, the climber enters what is known as the death zone.</p><br>
<h2>Films</h2><br>
<p>K2 (1991)</p><br>
<p>Vertical Limit (2000)</p><br>
<p>K2: Siren of the Himalayas (2012)</p><br>
<p>The Summit (2012)</p><br>
<h2>Disasters</h2><br>
<p>1986 K2 disaster</p><br>
<p>1995 K2 disaster</p><br>
<p>2008 K2 disaster</p><br>
<p>The Kiel Canal  is a 98 km long freshwater canal in the German state of Schleswig-Holstein. The canal was finished in 1895, but later widened, and links the North Sea at Brunsbüttel to the Baltic Sea at Kiel-Holtenau. An average of 250 NM is saved by using the Kiel Canal instead of going around the Jutland Peninsula. This not only saves time but also avoids storm-prone seas and having to pass through the Sound or Belts.</p><br>
<p>Besides its two sea entrances, the Kiel Canal is linked, at Oldenbüttel, to the navigable River Eider by the short Gieselau Canal.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The first connection between the North and Baltic Seas was constructed while the area was ruled by Denmark-Norway. It was called the Eider Canal, which used stretches of the Eider River for the link between the two seas. Completed during the reign of Christian VII of Denmark in 1784, the Eiderkanal was a 43 km part of a 175 km waterway from Kiel to the Eider River&#39;s mouth at Tönning on the west coast. It was only 29 m wide with a depth of 3 m, which limited the vessels that could use the canal to 300 tonnes.</p><br>
<p>After 1864 Second Schleswig War put Schleswig-Holstein under the government of Prussia (from 1871 the German Empire), a new canal was sought by merchants and by the German navy, which wanted to link its bases in the Baltic and the North Sea without the need to sail around Denmark.</p><br>
<p>In June 1887, construction started at Holtenau, near Kiel. The canal took over 9,000 workers eight years to build. On 20 June 1895 the canal was officially opened by Kaiser Wilhelm II for transiting from Brunsbüttel to Holtenau. The next day, a ceremony was held in Holtenau, where Wilhelm II named it the Kaiser Wilhelm Kanal (after his grandfather, Kaiser Wilhelm I), and laid the final stone. The opening of the canal was filmed by British director Birt Acres; surviving footage of this early film is preserved in the Science Museum in London. The first Trans-Atlantic sailing ship to pass through the canal was Lilly, commanded by Johan Pitka. Lilly. a barque, was a wooden sailing ship of about 390 tons built 1866 in Sunderland, U.K. She had a length of 127.5 ft., beam 28.7 ft., depth of 17.6 ft and a 32-ft keel.</p><br>
<h3>Widening (1907–1914)</h3><br>
<p>In order to meet the increasing traffic and the demands of the Imperial German Navy, between 1907 and 1914 the canal width was increased. The widening of the canal allowed the passage of a Dreadnought-sized battleship. This meant that these battleships could travel from the Baltic Sea to the North Sea without having to go around Denmark. The enlargement projects were completed by the installation of two larger canal locks in Brunsbüttel and Holtenau.</p><br>
<p>After World War I, the Treaty of Versailles required the canal to be open to vessels of commerce and of war of any nation at peace with Germany, while leaving it under German administration. (It must be noted here that the United States rejected this proposal because it would have given other powers – notably Great Britain and France – an excuse to seek similar concessions on the Panama Canal. Even pre–World War I Germany had floated such a proposal.) The government under Adolf Hitler repudiated its international status in 1936. After World War II the canal was reopened to all traffic. In 1948, the current name was adopted.</p><br>
<p>The canal was partially closed in March 2013 after two lock gates failed at the western end near Brunsbüttel. Ships larger than 125 m were forced to navigate via Skagerrak, a 450 km detour. The failure was blamed on neglect and a lack of funding by the German Federal Government which has been in financial dispute with the state of Schleswig-Holstein regarding the canal. Germany&#39;s Transport Ministry promised rapid repairs.</p><br>
<h2>Operation</h2><br>
<p>There are detailed traffic rules for the canal. Each vessel in passage is classified in one of six traffic groups according to its dimensions. Larger ships are obliged to accept pilots and specialised canal helmsmen, in some cases even the assistance of a tugboat. Furthermore, there are regulations regarding the passing of oncoming ships. Larger ships may also be required to moor at the bollards provided at intervals along the canal to allow the passage of oncoming vessels. Special rules apply to pleasure craft.</p><br>
<p>While most large, modern cruise ships cannot pass through this canal due to clearance limits under bridges, the SuperStar Gemini has special funnels and masts that can be lowered for passage. Swan Hellenics Minerva, P&O Cruisess Adonia, Fred. Olsen Cruise Lines ship Balmoral, Cruise & Maritime Voyages ship MS Marco Polo, Oceania Cruises&#39; Regatta, and Nautica, and MS Prinsendam of Holland America Line are able to transit the canal. Several of the Viking cruise ships are made specifically with Kiel Canal passage in mind, namely the Sea and Sky models.</p><br>
<p>All permanent, fixed bridges crossing the canal since its construction have a clearance of 42 m.</p><br>
<p>Maximum length for ships passing the Kiel Canal is 235.50 m; with the maximum width of 32.50 m these ships can have a draught of up to 7.00 m. Ships up to a length of 160.00 m may have a draught up to 9.50 m. The bulker Ever Leader (deadweight 74001 t) is considered to be the cargo ship that to date has come closest to the overall limits.</p><br>
<h2>Crossings</h2><br>
<p>Several railway lines and federal roads (Autobahnen and Bundesstraßen) cross the canal on eleven fixed links. The bridges have a clearance of 42 m allowing for ship heights up to 40 m. The oldest bridge still in use is the Levensau High Bridge from 1893; however, the bridge will have to be replaced in the course of a canal expansion already underway. In sequence and in the direction of the official kilometre count from west (Brunsbüttel) to east (Holtenau) these crossings are:</p><br>
<p>Brunsbüttel High Bridge, four lane crossing of Bundesstraße 5</p><br>
<p>Hochdonn High Bridge of the Marsh Railway</p><br>
<p>Hohenhörn High Bridge for Autobahn 23</p><br>
<p>Grünental High Bridge for railway line Neumünster-Heide and Bundesstraße 204</p><br>
<p>Rendsburg High Bridge for the Neumünster–Flensburg railway, suspended from which is a transporter bridge for local traffic</p><br>
<p>Rendsburg pedestrian tunnel</p><br>
<p>Kanaltunnel Rendsburg, road tunnel for Bundesstraße 77 (four lanes)</p><br>
<p>Rade High Bridge for Autobahn A7</p><br>
<p>Levensau High Bridge from 1893 for the Kiel–Flensburg railway and a local road</p><br>
<p>New Levensau High Bridge for Bundesstraße 76 (four lanes)</p><br>
<p>Holtenau High Bridges, two parallel bridges with three car lanes each as well as pavements for pedestrians and cyclists</p><br>
<p>Local traffic is also catered for by 14 ferry lines. Most noteworthy is the “hanging ferry” (Schwebefähre) beneath the Rendsburg High Bridge. All ferries are run by the Canal Authority and their use is free of charge.</p><br>
<p>Lake Tana  is the source of the Blue Nile and is the largest lake in Ethiopia. Located in Amhara Region in the north-western Ethiopian Highlands, the lake is approximately 84 kilometers long and 66 kilometers wide, with a maximum depth of 15 meters, and an elevation of 1,788 meters. Lake Tana is fed by the Lesser Abay, Reb and Gumara rivers. Its surface area ranges from 3,000 to 3,500 km², depending on season and rainfall. The lake level has been regulated since the construction of the control weir where the lake discharges into the Blue Nile. This controls the flow to the Blue Nile Falls  and hydro-power station.</p><br>
<p>In 2015, the Lake Tana region was nominated as UNESCO Biosphere Reserve recognizing its national and international natural and cultural importance.</p><br>
<h2>Overview</h2><br>
<p>Lake Tana was formed by volcanic activity, blocking the course of inflowing rivers in the early Pleistocene epoch, about 5 million years ago.</p><br>
<p>The lake was originally much larger than it is today. Seven large permanent rivers feed the lake as well as 40 small seasonal rivers. The main tributaries to the lake are Gilgel Abbay (Little Nile River), and the Megech, Gumara, and Rib rivers.</p><br>
<p>Lake Tana has a number of islands, whose number varies depending on the level of the lake. It has fallen about 6 ft in the last 400 years. According to Manoel de Almeida (a Portuguese missionary in the early 17th century), there were 21 islands, seven to eight of which had monasteries on them "formerly large, but now much diminished."</p><br>
<p>Remains of ancient Ethiopian emperors and treasures of the Ethiopian Church are kept in the isolated island monasteries (including Kebran Gabriel, Ura Kidane Mehret, Narga Selassie, Daga Estifanos, Medhane Alem of Rema, Kota Maryam, and Mertola Maryam). On the island of Tana Qirqos is a rock shown to Paul B. Henze, on which he was told the Virgin Mary had rested on her journey back from Egypt; he was also told that Frumentius, who introduced Christianity to Ethiopia, is "allegedly buried on Tana Cherqos." The body of Yekuno Amlak is interred in the monastery of St. Stephen on Daga Island. Emperors whose tombs are also on Daga include Dawit I, Zara Yaqob, Za Dengel, and Fasilides. Other important islands in Lake Tana include Dek, Mitraha, Gelila Zakarias, Halimun and Briguida. The monasteries are believed to have been built over earlier religious sites. They include the fourteenth-century Debre Maryam, and the eighteenth-century Narga Selassie, Tana Qirqos (said to have housed the Ark of the Covenant before it was moved to Axum), and Ura Kidane Mehret, known for its regalia. A ferry service links Bahir Dar with Gorgora via Dek Island and various lakeshore villages.</p><br>
<p>There is also Zege Peninsula on the southwest portion of the lake. Zege is the site of the Azwa Maryam monastery.</p><br>
<h2>Fauna</h2><br>
<p>Since there are no inflows that link the lake to other large waterways and the main outflow, the Blue Nile, is obstructed by the Blue Nile Falls, the lake supports a highly distinctive fish fauna, which generally is related to species from the Nile Basin.</p><br>
<p>About 70% of the fish species in the lake are endemic. Eight of these are piscivorous and an important prey is the small Barbus tanapelagius, another endemic of the lake. (B. humilis and B. pleurogramma also occur in Lake Tana, but neither is endemic.) Other noteworthy endemic species are Afronemacheilus abyssinicus, which is one of only two African stone loaches, and the tana subspecies of the Nile tilapia.</p><br>
<p>Lake Tana supports a large fishing industry, mainly based on the Labeobarbus barbs (formerly in genus Barbus), Nile tilapia and sharptooth catfish (a large catfish that is widespread in Africa). According to the Ethiopian Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture, 1,454 tons of fish are landed each year at Bahir Dar, which the department estimates are 15% of its sustainable amount.</p><br>
<p>Among other fauna, the lake supports relatively few invertebrates: There are fifteen species of molluscs, including one endemic, and also an endemic freshwater sponge. Numerous wetland birds, such as the great white pelican and African darter, reside at Lake Tana. It is an important resting and feeding ground for many Palearctic migrant waterbirds. There are no crocodiles, but the African softshell turtle has been recorded near the Blue Nile outflow from the lake.</p><br>
<p>Lake Erie  is the fourth-largest lake  of the five Great Lakes in North America, and the eleventh-largest globally if measured in terms of surface area. It is the southernmost, shallowest, and smallest by volume of the Great Lakes and therefore also has the shortest average water residence time. At its deepest point Lake Erie is 210 ft deep.</p><br>
<p>Situated on the International Boundary between Canada and the United States, Lake Erie&#39;s northern shore is the Canadian province of Ontario, with the USA states of Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York on its western, southern and eastern shores. These jurisdictions divide the surface area of the lake with water boundaries.</p><br>
<p>The lake was named by the Erie people, a Native Americans people who lived along its southern shore. The tribal name "erie" is a shortened form of the Iroquoian word erielhonan, meaning "long tail".</p><br>
<p>Situated below Lake Huron, Eries primary inlet is the Detroit River. The main natural outflow from the lake is via the Niagara River, which provides hydroelectric power to Canada and the USA as it spins huge turbines near Niagara Falls at Lewiston, New York and Queenston, Ontario. Some outflow occurs via the Welland Canal, part of the St. Lawrence Seaway, which diverts water for ship passages from Port Colborne, Ontario on Lake Erie, to St. Catharines on Lake Ontario, an elevation difference of 326 ft. Lake Eries environmental health has been an ongoing concern for decades, with issues such as overfishing, pollution, algae blooms and eutrophication generating headlines.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<h3>Geographic features</h3><br>
<p>Lake Erie (42.2° N, 81.2W) has a mean elevation of 571 ft above sea level. It has a surface area of 9,990 square miles with a length of 241 smi and breadth of 57 smi at its widest points.</p><br>
<p>It is the shallowest of the Great Lakes with an average depth of 10 fathoms 3 feet (62 ft and a maximum depth of 35 fathom For comparison, Lake Superior has an average depth of 80 fathoms 3 feet (483 ft, a volume of 2,900 cumi and shoreline of 2,726 statute miles (4,385 km). Because it is the shallowest, it is also the warmest of the Great Lakes, and in 1999 this almost became a problem for two nuclear power plants which require cool lake water to keep their reactors cool. The warm summer of 1999 caused lake temperatures to come close to the 85 &deg;F limit necessary to keep the plants cool. Also because of its shallowness, and in spite of being the warmest lake in the summer, it is also the first to freeze in the winter. The shallowest section of Lake Erie is the western basin where depths average only 25 to 30 ft; as a result, "the slightest breeze can kick up lively waves," according to a New York Times reporter in 2004. The "waves build very quickly", according to other accounts. Sometimes fierce waves springing up unexpectedly have led to dramatic rescues; in one instance, a Cleveland resident trying to measure the dock near his house became trapped but was rescued by a fire department diver from Avon Lake, Ohio:</p><br>
<p>This area is also known as the "thunderstorm capital of Canada" with "breathtaking" lightning displays. Lake Erie is primarily fed by the Detroit River (from Lake Huron and Lake St. Clair) and drains via the Niagara River and Niagara Falls into Lake Ontario. Navigation downstream is provided by the Welland Canal, part of the Saint Lawrence Seaway. Other major contributors to Lake Erie include the Grand River, the Huron River, the Maumee River, the Sandusky River, the Buffalo River, and the Cuyahoga River. The drainage basin covers 30,140 square miles.</p><br>
<p>Point Pelee National Park, the southernmost point of the Canadian mainland, is located on a peninsula extending into the lake. Several islands are found in the western end of the lake; these belong to Ohio except for Pelee Island and eight neighboring islands, which are part of Ontario.</p><br>
<p>Major cities along Lake Erie include Buffalo; Erie, Pennsylvania; Toledo, Ohio; and Cleveland, Ohio.</p><br>
<h3>Islands</h3><br>
<p>Islands tend to be located in the western side of the lake and total 31 in number (13 in Canada, 18 in the USA). The island-village of Put-in-Bay on South Bass Island attracts young crowds who sometimes wear "red bucket hats" and are prone to "break off cartwheels in the park" and general merriment. Kelleys Island was depicted by the Chicago Tribune as having charms that were "more subtle" than Put-in-Bay, and offers amenities such as beach lounging, hiking, biking and "marveling at deep glacial grooves left in limestone." Pelee Island is the largest of Erie&#39;s islands, accessible by ferry from Leamington, Ontario and Sandusky, Ohio. The island has a "fragile and unique ecosystem" with plants rarely found in Canada, such as wild hyacinth, yellow horse gentian (Triosteum angustifolium) and prickly pear cactus, as well as two endangered snakes, the blue racer and the Lake Erie water snake. Songbirds migrate to Pelee in spring, and monarch butterflies stop over during the fall.</p><br>
<h3>Water levels</h3><br>
<p>Lake Erie has a lake retention time of 2.6 years, the shortest of all the Great Lakes. The lakes surface area is 9,910 square miles. Lake Eries water level fluctuates with the seasons as in the other Great Lakes. Generally, the lowest levels are in January and February, and the highest in June or July, although there have been exceptions. The average yearly level varies depending on long-term precipitation. Short-term level changes are often caused by seiches that are particularly high when southwesterly winds blow across the length of the lake during storms. These cause water to pile up at the eastern end of the lake. Storm-driven seiches can cause damage onshore. During one storm in November 2003, the water level at Buffalo rose by 7 ft with waves of 10 – for a rise of 22 ft. Meanwhile, at the western end of the lake, Toledo experienced a similar drop in water level. Lake water is used for drinking purposes.</p><br>
<p>Historic High Water. The lake fluctuates from month to month with the highest lake levels in June and July. In the summer of 1986, Lake Erie reached its highest level at 5.08 ft above datum. The high water records were set from 1986 (April) through January 1987. Levels ranged from 4.33 to 5.08 ft above Chart Datum.</p><br>
<p>Historic Low Water. Lake Erie experiences its lowest levels in the winter. In the winter of 1934, Lake Erie reached its lowest level at 1.5 ft below datum. Monthly low water records were set from July 1934 through June 1935. During this twelve-month period water levels ranged from 1.5 ft to the Chart Datum.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Lake Erie was carved out by glacier ice, and in its current form is less than 4,000 years old, which is a short span in geological terms. Before this, the land on which the lake now sits went through several complex stages. A large lowland basin formed over two million years ago as a result of an eastern flowing river that existed well before the Pleistocene ice ages. This ancient drainage system was destroyed by the first major glacier in the area, while it deepened and enlarged the lowland areas, allowing water to settle and form a lake. The glaciers were able to carve away more land on the eastern side of the lowland because the bedrock is made of shale which is softer than the carbonate rocks of dolomite and limestone on the western side. Thus, the eastern and central basins of the modern lake are much deeper than the western basin, which averages only 25 ft deep and is rich in nutrients and fish. Lake Erie is the shallowest of the Great Lakes because the ice was relatively thin and lacked erosion power when it reached that far south, according to one view.</p><br>
<p>As many as three glaciers advanced and retreated over the land causing temporary lakes to form in the time periods in between each of them. Because each lake had a different volume of water their shorelines rested at differing elevations. The last of these lakes to form, Lake Warren, existed between about 13,000 and 12,000 years ago. It was deeper than the current Lake Erie, so its shoreline existed about 8 mi inland from the modern one. The shorelines of these lakes left behind high ground sand ridges that cut through swamps and were used as trails for Indians and later, pioneers. These trails became primitive roads which were eventually paved. USA Route 30 west of Delphos and USA Route 20 west of Norwalk and east of Cleveland were formed in this manner. One can still see some of these ancient sand dunes that formed in the Oak Openings Region in Northwestern Ohio. There, the sandy dry lake bed soil was not enough to support large trees with the exception of a few species of oaks, forming a rare oak savanna.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Native Americans</h3><br>
<p>At the time of European contact, there were several groups of Indian cultures living around the shores of the eastern end of the lake. The Erie tribe (from whom the lake takes its name) lived along the southern edge, while the Neutrals (also known as Attawandaron) lived along the northern shore. Near Port Stanley, there is an Indian village dating from the 16th century known as the Southwold Earthworks where as many as 800 Neutral Indians once lived; the archaeological remains include double earth walls winding around the grass-covered perimeter. Europeans named the tribe the Neutral Indians since these people refused to fight with other tribes. Both tribes were conquered and assimilated by their hostile eastern neighbors, the Iroquois Confederacy between AD 1651 and 1657, in what is referred to as part of the Beaver Wars.</p><br>
<p>For decades after those wars, the land around eastern Lake Erie was claimed and utilized by the Iroquois as a hunting ground. As the power of the Iroquois waned during the last quarter of the 17th century, several other, mainly Anishinaabe Native American tribes, displaced them from the territories they claimed on the north shore of the lake. There was a legend of an Indian woman named Huldah who, despairing over her lost British lover, hurled herself from a high rock from Pelee Island.</p><br>
<h3>European exploration and settlement</h3><br>
<p>In 1669, the Frenchman Louis Jolliet was the first documented European to sight Lake Erie, although there is speculation that Étienne Brûlé may have come across it in 1615. Lake Erie was the last of the Great Lakes to be explored by Europeans, since the Iroquois who occupied the Niagara River area were in conflict with the French, and they did not allow explorers or traders to pass through. Explorers followed rivers out of Lake Ontario and portaged directly into Lake Huron. British authorities in Canada were nervous about possible expansion by American settlers across Lake Erie, so Colonel Talbot developed the Talbot Trail in 1809 as a way to stimulate settlement to the area; Talbot recruited settlers from Ireland and Scotland and there are numerous places named after him, such as Port Talbot and the Talbot River and Talbotville in southern Ontario.</p><br>
<p>During the War of 1812, Oliver Hazard Perry captured an entire British fleet in 1813 near Put-in-Bay, Ohio, despite having inferior numbers. American soldiers swept through the Ontario area around Port Rowan burning towns and villages, but spared a gristmill owned by a Canadian mason named John Backhouse, according to one report. Generally, however, despite the two exceptions being the American Revolutionary War and the War of 1812 which involved conflicts between the USA and Great Britain, relations between the USA and Canada have been remarkably friendly with an "unfortified boundary" and an agreement "that has kept all fleets of war off the Great Lakes."</p><br>
<p>In 1837, rebellions broke about between Canadian settlers and the British Colonial government, primarily over political reforms and land allocation issues. Some of the rebels stationed themselves in the USA and crossed the ice from Sandusky Bay to Pelee Island wearing "tattered overcoats and worn-out boots", and carrying muskets, pitchforks, and swords, but the islanders had already fled. Later, there was a battle on the ice with the Royal 32nd regiment, with the rebels being driven to retreat.</p><br>
<p>Settlers established commercial fisheries on the north coast of the lake around the 1850s. An important business was fishing. In the pre-Civil War years, railways sprouted everywhere, and around 1852 there were railways circling the lake. Maritime traffic picked up, although the lake was usually closed because of ice from December to early April, and ships had to wait for the ice to clear before proceeding. Since slavery had been abolished in Canada in 1833, but was still legal in southern states of the USA, a Lake Erie crossing was sometimes required for fugitive slaves seeking freedom:</p><br>
<p>Merchant shippers lacked modern radar and weather forecasting, so vessels were often caught up in intense gales:</p><br>
<p>There were reports of disasters usually from sea captains passing information to reporters; in 1868, the captain of the Grace Whitney saw a sunken vessel "three men clinging to the masthead" but he could not help because of the gale and high seas.</p><br>
<p>A balloonist named John Steiner of Philadelphia made an ambitious trip across the lake in 1857. He was described in The New York Times as an eronaut or aeronaut; powered boats were called propellers; and fast was deemed railroad speed. Here&#39;s an account of the day-long voyage over the lake:</p><br>
<p>In 1885, lake winds were so strong that water levels dropped substantially, sometimes by as much as two feet, so that at ports such as Toledo, watercraft could not load coal or depart the port.</p><br>
<p>During the history of the lake as a fishery, there has been marked battling by opposing interest groups. Here&#39;s an 1895 newspaper account in which critics of commercial fishing issued dire predictions and calling for government action to solve the problem:</p><br>
<p>Predictions of the lake being over-fished in 1895 were premature, since the fishery has survived commercial and sport fishing, pollution in the middle of the 20th century, invasive species and other ailments, but state and provincial governments, as well as national governments, have played a greater role as time went by. Business boomed; in 1901, the Carnegie Company proposed building a new harbor near Erie in Elk Creek to accommodate shipments from its tube-plant site nearby. In 1913, a memorial to Commodore Perry was built on Put-in-Bay island featuring a Doric column.</p><br>
<p>During the Prohibition years from 1919 to 1933, a "great deal of alcohol crossed Erie" along with "mobster corpses" dumped into the Detroit River which sometimes washed up on the beaches of Pelee Island. According to one account, Al Capone hid a "fortune" in the walls of the Middle Island luxury club, but no money was found in it as of 2007 when the building no longer stood. The club had a basement casino with poker tables and slot machines.</p><br>
<p>During the 20th century, commercial fishing was prevalent, but so was the boom in manufacturing industry around the lake, and often rivers and streams were used as sewers to flush untreated sewage which ended up in the lake. Sometimes poorly constructed sanitary systems meant that when old mains broke, raw sewage would spill directly into the Cuyahoga and into the lake. A report in Time magazine in 1969 described the lake as a "gigantic cesspool" since only three of 62 beaches were rated "completely safe for swimming".</p><br>
<p>By 1975 the popular commercial fish blue pike had been declared extinct, although the declaration may have been premature. By the 1980s, there were about 130 fishing vessels with about 3,000 workers, but commercial fishing was declining rapidly, particularly from the American side.</p><br>
<h3>Great Lakes Compact</h3><br>
<p>In 2005, the Great Lakes States of Ohio, Michigan, New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Indiana, Wisconsin, Minnesota and the Canadian Provinces of Ontario and Quebec endorsed the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence River Basin Sustainable Water Resources Compact (Compact). The Compact was signed into law by President George W. Bush in September 2008. An international water rights policy overseen by the Great Lakes Commission, the Compact aims to prevent diversion of water from Great Lakes to distant states, as well as to set standards for use and conservation. It had support from both political parties, including former United States Senator George Voinovich (R-OH) and former Governor Jennifer Granholm (D-MI), but is not popular in the southwestern states due to frequent drought conditions and water scarcity.</p><br>
<h2>Lake environment</h2><br>
<h3>Weather</h3><br>
<h4>Lake Erie in winter</h4><br>
<p>Like the other Great Lakes, Erie produces lake effect snow when the first cold winds of winter pass over the warm waters. When the difference in temperature between the relatively warm surface water and the colder air reaches a threshold value of 18 to 23 degrees Fahrenheit (10 to 13 degrees Celsius), then "lake-effect snow becomes possible:"</p><br>
<p>Heavy lake-effect snowfalls can occur when cold air travels 60 mi or longer over a large unfrozen lake. Lake-effect snow makes Buffalo and Erie the eleventh and thirteenth snowiest places in the entire United States respectively, according to data collected from the National Climatic Data Center. Since winds blow primarily west–to–east along the main axis of the lake, lake effect snow effects are more pronounced on the eastern parts of the lake such as cities such as Buffalo and Erie. Buffalo typically gets 95 in of snow each winter, and sometimes 10 ft of snow; the snowiest city is Syracuse, New York, which can receive heavy snowfall from both the lake effect process and large coastal cyclones. A storm around Christmas in 2001 pounded Buffalo with seven feet of snow.</p><br>
<p>The lake effect ends or its effect is reduced, however, when the lake freezes over. In January 2011, for example, residents of Cleveland were glad when Lake Erie was "90 percent frozen" since it meant that the area had "made it over the hump" in terms of enduring repeated snowfalls which required much shoveling. Being the shallowest of the Great Lakes, it is the most likely to freeze and frequently does. On February 16, 2010, meteorologists reported that the lake had frozen over marking the first time the lake had completely frozen over since the winter of 1995–1996. In contrast, Lake Michigan has never completely frozen over since the warmer and deeper portion is in the south, although it came close to being totally frozen during three harsh winters over the past century. When the lake freezes over, this usually shuts down the lake effect snowfall. In past years, lake ice was so thick that it was possible to drive over it or go sailing on iceboats; but in the first decade of the 21st century, the ice has not been thick enough for such activities. Many lake residents take advantage of the ice and travel; some drive to Canada and back. Here&#39;s one account of ice life around Put-in-Bay:</p><br>
<h4>Windy conditions</h4><br>
<p>Strong winds have caused lake currents to shift sediment on the bottom, leading to "wickedly shifting sandbars" which have been a source of shipwrecks. But winds can have a peaceful purpose as well; there have been proposals to place electricity–producing wind turbines in windy and shallow points in the lake and along the coast, both in the United States and Canada. In 2010, there were plans for GE to develop five wind turbines to generate 20 megawatts of power by 2012 with plans to generate 1,000 megawatts by 2020; one proposal called for "gearless turbines" with 176-foot long blades helped along with magnets. A nonprofit development group near Cleveland was developing plans to construct hundreds of turbines in the lake. A former steel mill site on the eastern edge of the lake in Buffalo, NY has been redeveloped as an urban wind farm in 2007. Known as Steel Winds, the project currently houses 14 turbines capable of generating up to 35 megawatts of electricity. A plan by Samsung to build an offshore wind farm on the north shore of the lake, from Port Maitland to Nanticoke for a distance of 15.5 mi, but the plan has been met with opposition from residents for a number of reasons. Canadians near Leamington and Kingsville have organized protest groups to thwart attempts to bring wind turbines to the lake; reasons against the turbines include spoiling lake views as well as possible adverse effects regarding drinking water and commercial fishing. Plans to install turbines in Pigeon Bay, south of Leamington were met with opposition as well. The notion that bird and bat migration may be hurt by the wind turbines has been used to argue against the wind turbines; a reporter in The Globe and Mail wrote "Given the tendency of turbines to make mincemeat of things airborne, it doesn’t require great imagination to figure out what would happen."</p><br>
<h4>Microclimates</h4><br>
<p>The lake is also responsible for microclimates that are important to agriculture. Along its north shore is one of the richest areas of Canadas fruit and vegetable production; this southernmost tip, particularly in the area around Leamington, is known as Canadas "tomato capital". The area around Port Rowan in Ontario has special trees which grow because of the "tempering effect of the lake", and species include tulip trees, flowering dogwood, sassafras and sour gum. In this area there are many greenhouses which produce a "variety of tropical plants rarely cultivated so far north", including some species of cacti, because of the lake&#39;s tempering effect. Along the southeastern shore in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York is an important grape growing region, as are the islands in the lake. Apple orchards are abundant in northeast Ohio to western New York.</p><br>
<h4>Long term weather patterns</h4><br>
<p>According to one estimate, 34 to 36 inches of water evaporates each year from the surface of the lake, which allows for rainfall and other precipitation in surrounding areas. There are conflicting reports about the overall effect of global warming on the Great Lakes region, including Lake Erie. One account suggests that climate change is causing greater evaporation of lake water, leading to warmer temperatures as well as ice in winter which is less thick or nonexistent, fueling concerns that "Erie appears to be shrinking" and is the most likely candidate among the five Great Lakes to "turn into a festering mud puddle." In 2010, the Windsor Star reported that the lake experienced "record-breaking temperatures" reaching 81 &deg;F in mid-August and compared the lake to a "bath tub". But the long term weather patterns are subject to controversy.</p><br>
<h3>Ecosystems</h3><br>
<p>Lake Erie has a complex ecosystem with many species in constant interaction. Human activity, such as pollution and maritime ship traffic, can affect this environment in numerous ways. The interactions between the new species can sometimes have beneficial effects, as well as harmful effects. Some introductions have been seen as beneficial such as the introduction of Pacific salmon. Occasionally there have been mass die-offs of certain species of fish, sometimes for reasons unknown, such as many numbers of rainbow smelt in May 2010.</p><br>
<h4>Invasive species</h4><br>
<p>The lake has been plagued with a number of invasive species, including zebra and quagga mussels, the goby and the grass carp. One estimate was that there have been 180 invasive species in the Great Lakes, some having traveled in ballast water in international ships. Zebra mussels and gobies have been credited with the increased population and size of smallmouth bass in Lake Erie.</p><br>
<p>BASS Communications — September 3, 2003 In 2008 there were concerns that the "newest invader swarming in the Great Lakes", which was the "bloody-red shrimp", might harm fish populations and promote algae blooms.</p><br>
<p>Environmentalists and biologists study lake conditions via installations such as the Franz Theodore Stone Laboratory on Gibraltar Island. The lab, which was established in 1895, is the oldest biological field station in the United States. Stone Laboratory was donated to the Ohio State University by Julius Stone in 1925 as part of the university&#39;s Ohio Sea Grant College Program. In addition, the Great Lakes Institute of the University of Windsor has experts who study issues such as lake sediment pollution and the flow of contaminants such as phosphorus.</p><br>
<p>A list of the common invasive species in Lake Erie include: Zebra Mussels, Quagga Mussels, Round Gobies, Spiny European Water Fleas, Fishhook Water Fleas, the Sea Lamprey, and White Perch. The invasive plant species that fill Lake Erie consist mainly of Eurasian Milfoil, and Purple Loosestrife,</p><br>
<h4>Eutrophication and the infamous dead zone</h4><br>
<p>An ongoing concern is that "nutrient overloading from fertilizers, human and animal waste", known as eutrophication, in which additional nitrogen and phosphorus enter the lake, will cause plant life to "run wild and multiply like crazy". Since there are fewer wetlands, which are like "Natures kidneys" by filtering nutrients, as well as greater "channelization of waterways", nutrients in water can cause algal blooms to sprout as well as "low-oxygen dead zones" in a complex interaction of natural forces. As of the 2010s much of the phosphorus in the lake comes from fertilizer applied to no-till soybean and corn fields but washed into streams by heavy rains. The algal blooms result from growth of Microcystis, a toxic blue-green algae that the zebra mussels which infest the lake dont eat.</p><br>
<p>There periodically is a dead zone, or region of low oxygen, in the lake whose exact location varies. Scientists from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration have been studying the lakes blue-green algae blooms, and trying to find ways to predict when they are spreading or where they might hit landfall; typically the blooms arrive late each summer. This problem was extreme in the mid and late 1960s and the Lake Erie Wastewater Management Study (LEWMS) conducted by the Buffalo District of the US Army Corps of Engineers determined that the eutrophication was due to "point sources" such as industrial outfalls and municipal sanitary and storm sewer outfalls, as well as "diffuse sources", such as overland runoff from farm and forest land. All these sources contribute nutrients, primarily phosphorus, to the lake. Growth of organisms in the lake is then spiked to the point that oxygen levels are depleted. LEWMS made recommendations for reducing point source outflows, as well as reducing farm contributions of phosphorus by changing fertilizer usage, employing "no-till" farming and other conservative practices. Many industrial and municipal sources have since then been greatly reduced. The improved farming practices, which were voluntary, were followed for a while, resulting in remarkable recovery of the lake in the 1970s.</p><br>
<p>Unfortunately, the conservative practices are not monitored, and have not been kept up. One recent account suggests that the seasonal algae blooms in Lake Erie were possibly caused by "runoff from cities, fertilizers, zebra mussels, and livestock near water." A second report focuses on the zebra mussels as being the cause of "big oxygen-poor dead zones" since they filter so much sediment that they have resulted in the growth of algae. One report suggests the oxygen-poor zone began about 1993 in the lakes central basin and becomes more pronounced during summer months, but it is somewhat of a mystery why this happens. Some scientists speculate that the dead zone is a naturally occurring phenomenon. Another report cited Ohios Maumee River as the main source of polluted runoff of phosphorus from industries, municipalities, tributaries and agriculture, and in 2008, satellite images showed the algal bloom heading toward Pelee Island, and possibly heading to Lake Eries central basin. There have been two-year $2 million studies trying to understand the "growing zone" which was described as a "10-foot-thick layer of cold water at the bottom", 55 ft in one area, which stretches "100 miles across the lakes center". It kills fish and microscopic creatures of the lake&#39;s food chain and fouls the water, and may cause further problems in later years for sport and commercial fishing.</p><br>
<p>Algae blooms continued in early 2013 but new farming techniques, climate change and even a change in Lake Erie’s ecosystem make phosphorus pollution more intractable.</p><br>
<h4>Snakes</h4><br>
<p>The Lake Erie water snake, a subspecies of the northern water snake (Nerodia sipedon), lives in the vicinity of Ohios Put-in-Bay Harbor, and had been put on the threatened species list. A threatened species is one which may soon become an endangered species. By 2010, the water snake population was over 12,000 snakes. While they have a non-venomous bite, they are a key predator in the lakes aquatic ecosystem since they feed on mudpuppies and walleye and smallmouth bass. The snake was helpful in keeping the population of goby fish in check. They mate from late May through early June and can be found in large mating balls with one female bunched with several males.</p><br>
<h4>Asian carp</h4><br>
<p>There is a concern that Asian carp might enter the Great Lakes region and alter the ecosystem negatively. They have been described as "greedy giants that suck plankton from the water with the brutal efficiency of vacuum cleaners" and scientists worry that they may unravel the "aquatic food web" by crowding out other species.</p><br>
<h4>Snakehead fish</h4><br>
<p>There was concern in 2007 that snakehead fish could get into the Great Lakes area. Officials warn that if the fish invades, it could "decimate the aquatic food chain". A YouTube video mentioned in a newspaper account has a man claiming that the fish could "bite your entire hand off". The fish can reach 5 ft in length and "survive out of water for four days" and "has a mouth full of teeth that can shear fish in half" and can "eat ducks and small mammals." The snakehead fish can not live in a lake that has completely frozen over. They must come to the surface to breathe via their swim bladder.</p><br>
<h4>Agriculture and life around the lake</h4><br>
<p>In 1999, Doppler radar weather sensors detected millions of mayflies heading for Presque Isle in blue and green splotches on the radar in clouds measuring 10 mi long. These insects were a sign of Lake Eries move back to health, since the mayflies require clean water to thrive. Biologist Masteller of Penn State Erie declared the bugs to be a "nice nuisance" since they signified the lakes return to health after forty years of absence. Each is an inch and a half long; the three main species of mayflies are Ephemera simulans, Hexagenia rigida and Hexagenia limbata. The insects mate over a 72-hour period from June through September; they fly in masses up to the shore, mate in the air, then females lay up to 8,000 eggs each over the water; the eggs sink back down and the cycle repeats. Sometimes the clouds of mayflies have caused power outages as well as causing roads to become slippery with squashed insects. Since zebra mussels filter extra nutrients from the lake, it allows the mayfly larvae to thrive.</p><br>
<p>There have been incidents of birds dying from botulism, in 2000, and in 2002. Birds affected included grebes, common and red-breasted mergansers, loons, diving ducks, ring-billed gulls and herring gulls. One account suggests that bird populations are in trouble, notably the woodland warbler, which had population declines around 60 percent in 2008. Possible causes for declines in bird populations are farming practices, loss of habitats, soil depletion and erosion, and toxic chemicals. In 2006, there were concerns of possible bird flu after two wild swans on the lake were found diseased, but it was learned that they did not contain the deadly H5N1 virus. There were sightings of a magnificent frigatebird, a tropical bird with a two-metre wingspan, over the lake in 2008.</p><br>
<h4>Water quality issues and restoration</h4><br>
<p>Lake Erie infamously became very polluted in the 1960s and 1970s as a result of the quantity of heavy industry situated in cities on its shores, with reports of bacteria-laden beaches and fish contaminated by industrial waste. In the 1970s, patches of the lake were declared dead because of industrial waste as well as sewage from runoffs; as The New York Times reporter Denny Lee wrote in 2004, "The lake, after all, is where the Rust Belt meets the water."</p><br>
<p>The water quality deteriorated partially due to increasing levels of the nutrient phosphorus in both the water and lake bottom sediments. The resultant high nitrogen levels in the water caused eutrophication, which resulted in algal blooms and algae masses and fish kills increasingly fouled the shoreline during this period. There were incidents of the oily surfaces of tributary rivers emptying into Lake Erie catching fire: in 1969, Cleveland&#39;s Cuyahoga River erupted in flames, chronicled in a Time magazine article which lamented a tendency to use rivers flowing through major cities as "convenient, free sewers&quot the Detroit River caught fire on another occasion. The outlook was gloomy:</p><br>
<p>These events embarrassed officials and spurred local officials, including Clevelands director of public utilities, Ben Stefanski, to pursue a massive effort to "scrub the Cuyahoga&quot the effort cost $100 million in bonds, according to one estimate. New sewer lines were built. Clevelanders approved a bond issue by 2 to 1 to seriously upgrade Clevelands sewage system. Federal officials acted as well; the United States Congress passed the Clean Water Act of 1972. In that year, the United States and Canada established water pollution limits in an International Water Quality Agreement. The Corps&#39; LEWMS, mentioned above, was also instituted at that time. The controls were effective, but it took several decades to take effect; by 1999, there were signs that large numbers of mayflies were spotted on the lake after a forty-year absence, signalling a return to health.</p><br>
<p>The clearing of the water column is also partly due to the introduction and rapid spread of zebra mussels from Europe, which had the effect of covering "the basin floor like shag carpeting" with each creature filtering "a liter of fresh water a day," helping to restore the lake to a cleaner state. The 1972 Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement also significantly reduced the dumping and runoff of phosphorus into the lake. The lake has since become clean enough to allow sunlight to infiltrate its water and produce algae and sea weed, but a dead zone persists in the central Lake Erie Basin during the late summer. The United States Environmental Protection Agency has studied this cyclic phenomenon since 2005. There have been instances of beach closings at Presque Isle off the coast of northwestern Pennsylvania because of unexplained E. Coli contaminations, possibly caused by storm water overflows after heavy downpours.</p><br>
<p>Since the 1970s environmental regulation has led to a great increase in water quality and the return of economically important fish species such as walleye and other biological life. There was substantial evidence that the new controls had substantially reduced levels of DDT in the water by 1979. Cleanup efforts were described in 1979 as a notable environmental success story, suggesting that the cumulative effect of legislation, studies, and bans had reversed the effects of pollution:</p><br>
<p>Joint USA–Canadian agreements pushed 600 of 864 major industrial dischargers to meet requirements for keeping the water clean. One estimate was that $5 billion was spent to upgrade plants to treat sewage. The change toward cleaner water has been in a positive direction since the 1970s.</p><br>
<h4>Other ecosystem related issues</h4><br>
<p>There was a tentative exploratory plan to capture CO2, compress it to a liquid form, and pump it a half-mile (800 m) beneath Lake Erie&#39;s surface underneath the porous rock structure. According to chemical engineer Peter Douglas, there is sufficient storage space beneath Lake Erie to hold between 15 and 50 years of liquid CO2 emissions from the 4,000 megawatt Nanticoke coal plant. But there has been no substantial progress on this issue since 2007.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<h3>Fishing</h3><br>
<h4>Species of fish</h4><br>
<p>Lake Erie is home to one of the worlds largest freshwater commercial fisheries. Lake Eries fish populations are the most abundant of the Great Lakes, partially because of the lakes relatively mild temperatures and plentiful supply of plankton, which is the basic building block of the food chain. The lakes fish population accounts for an estimated 50% of all fish inhabiting the Great Lakes. The lake is "loaded with superstars" such as steelhead, walleye (American usage) or pickerel (Canadian usage), smallmouth bass, perch, as well as bass, trout, salmon, whitefesh, smelt, and many others. The lake consists of a long list of well established introduced species. Common non-indigenous fish species include the rainbow smelt, alewife, white perch and common carp. Non-native sport fish such as rainbow trout and brown trout are stocked specifically for anglers to catch. Attempts failed to stock coho salmon and its numbers are once again dwindling. Commercial landings are dominated by yellow perch and walleye, with substantial quantities of rainbow smelt and white bass also taken. Anglers target walleye and yellow perch, with some effort directed at rainbow trout. A variety of other species are taken in smaller quantities by both commercial and sport fleets.</p><br>
<p>Up until the end of the 1950s, the most commonly caught commercial fish (more than 50% of the commercial catch) was a subspecies of the walleye known as the blue walleye (Sander vitreus glaucus) sometimes erroneously called "blue pike". In the 1970s and 1980s, as pollution in the lake declined, counts of walleyes which were caught grew from 112,000 in 1975 to 4.1 million in 1985, with estimates of the numbers of walleyes in the lake at around 33 million in the basin, with many of 8 pounds or more. Not all walleyes thrived. The combination of overfishing and the eutrophication of the lake by pollution caused the population to collapse, and in the mid-1980s, one species of walleye called the blue walleye was declared extinct. But the Lake Erie walleye was reportedly having record numbers, even in 1989, according to one report. There have been concerns about rising levels of mercury in walleye fish; a study by the Canadian Ministry of the Environment noted an "increasing concentration trend" but that limits were within acceptable established by authorities in Pennsylvania. It was recommended, because of PCBs, that persons eat no more than one walleye meal per month. Because of these and other concerns, in 1990, the National Wildlife Federation was on the verge of having a "negative fish consumption advisory" for walleyes and smallmouth bass, which had been the bread-and-butter catch of an $800 million commercial fishing industry.</p><br>
<p>The longest fish in Lake Erie is reportedly the sturgeon which can grow to ten feet long and weight 300 pounds, but it is an endangered species and mostly lives on the bottom of the lake. In 2009, there was a confirmed instance of a sturgeon being caught, which was returned to the lake alive, and there are hopes that the population of sturgeons is resurging.</p><br>
<h4>Commercial fishing</h4><br>
<p>Estimates vary about the fishing market for the Great Lakes region. One estimate of the total market for fishing, including commercial as well as sport or recreational fishing, for all of the Great Lakes, was $4 billion annually, in 2007. A second estimate was that the fishing industry was valued at more than $7 billion.</p><br>
<p>But since high levels of pollution were discovered in the 1960s and 1970s, there has been continued debate over the desired intensity of commercial fishing. Commercial fishing in Lake Erie has been hurt by the bad economy as well as government regulations which limit the size of their catch; one report suggested that the numbers of fishing boats and employees had declined by two-thirds in recent decades. Another concern had been that pollution in the lake, as well as toxins found inside fish, were working against commercial fishing interests. USA fishermen based along Lake Erie "lost their livelihood" over the past few decades described as being "caught in a net of laws and bans", according to the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, and no longer catch fish such as whitefish for markets in New York. Pennsylvania had a special $3 stamp on fishing licenses to help "compensate commercial fishermen for their losses", but this program ended after five years turning Erie&#39;s commercial fishing industry into an "artifact." One blamed the commercial fishing ban after a "test of wills" between commercial and recreational fishermen: "One side needed large hauls. The other feared the lake was being emptied."</p><br>
<p>Commercial fishing is now predominantly based in Canadian communities, with a much smaller fishery—largely restricted to yellow perch—in Ohio. One account suggested that Canadian fishermen are "still at it and making money" and they "know how to fish" by "using the old nets." The Ontario fishery is one of the most intensively managed in the world. However, there are reports that some Canadian commercial fishermen are dissatisfied with fishing quotas, and have sued their government about this matter, and there have been complaints that the legislative body writing the quotas is "dominated by the USA" and that sport fishing interests are favored at the expense of commercial fishing interests. Cuts of 30 to 45 percent for certain fish were made in 2007. The Lake Erie fishery was one of the first fisheries in the world managed on individual transferable quotas and features mandatory daily catch reporting and intensive auditing of the catch reporting system. Still, the commercial fishery is the target of critics who would like to see the lake managed for the exclusive benefit of sport fishing and the various industries serving the sport fishery. In November 2010, Ontarios oldest and largest fish processor known as Great Lakes Fish Corporation was shut down after operating for a hundred years; 130 workers were laid off and numerous spinoff jobs disappeared, such as jobs at local restaurants and net repair shops. According to one report, the Canadian town of Port Dover is the home of the lakes largest fishing fleet, and the town features miniature golf, dairy bars, French-fry stands, and restaurants serving perch.</p><br>
<h4>Government regulation of fishing</h4><br>
<p>The lake can be thought of as a common asset with multiple purposes including being a fishery. There was direct competition between commercial fishermen and sport fishermen (including charter boats and sales of fishing licenses) throughout the lake&#39;s history, with both sides seeking government assistance from either Washington or Ottawa, and trying to make their case in the "court" of public opinion through newspaper reporting. But other groups have entered the political process as well, including environmentalists, lakefront property owners, industry owners and workers seeking cost-effective solutions for sewage, ferry boat operators, even corporations making electric-generating wind turbines.</p><br>
<p>Management of the fishery is by consensus of all management agencies with an interest in the resource and include the states of New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan and the province of Ontario, and work under the mandate of the Great Lakes Fishery Commission. The commission makes assessments using sophisticated mathematical modeling systems. The Commission has been the focus of considerable recrimination, primarily from angler and charter fishing groups in the USA which have had a historical antipathy to commercial fishing interests. This conflict is complex, dating from the 1960s and earlier, with the result in the United States that, in 2011, commercial fishing was mostly eliminated from Great Lakes states. One report suggests that battling between diverse fishing interests began around Lake Michigan and evolved to cover the entire Great Lakes region. The analysis suggests that in the Lake Erie context, the competition between sport and commercial fishing involves universals and that these conflicts are cultural, not scientific, and therefore not resolvable by reference to ecological data.</p><br>
<h4>Sport fishing</h4><br>
<p>The lake also supports a strong sport fishery. While commercial fishing declined, sport fishing has remained. The deep cool waters that spawn the best fishing is in the Canadian side of the lake. As a result, a fishing boat that crosses the international border triggers the security concerns of border crossings and fishermen are advised to have their passport. If their boat crosses the invisible border line in the lake, upon returning to the American shore, passengers will have to "drive to a local government reporting station and pose for pictures" to Customs officers by videophone. There are cumbersome rules for fishing boat operators as well, who will have to fax passenger personal information to a government agency an hour before leaving; officers will be watching and doing spot checks from patrol boats and government aircraft". Authorities in 2008 from the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission have tried stocking the lake with brown trout in an effort to build whats called a put-grow-and-take fishery. There was a report that charter boat fishing increased substantially on the American side, from 46 to 638 charter boats in operation in Ohio alone, during a period from 1975 to 1985 as pollution levels declined, and after populations of walleye increased substantially in the lake. In 1984, Ohio sold 27,000 nonresident fishing permits, and sport fishing was described as big business. In 1992, there were accounts of fishermen catching 8, 10, and 12 pound walleyes, and that the "runt of a five-man daily limit of 25 walleye might be a nuisance of 5 pounds." It is possible to fish off piers in winter for a fish called the burbot, also known by pseudonyms such as eelpout, mudblow, lawyer fish, cusk, or freshwater cod which looks "ugly" but tastes great; the burbot make a midwinter spawning run and is reportedly one of "Eries glacial relics."</p><br>
<h4>Ice fishing</h4><br>
<p>In winter when the lake freezes, many fishermen go out on the ice, cut holes, and fish. It is even possible to build bonfires on the ice. But venturing on Lake Erie ice can be dangerous. In a freak incident in 2009, warming temperatures and winds of 35 miles per hour and currents pushing eastward dislodged a miles-wide ice floe which broke away from the shore, trapping more than 130 fishermen offshore; one man died while the rest were rescued by helicopters or boats.</p><br>
<h3>Agriculture</h3><br>
<p>The lake&#39;s formerly more extensive lakebed creates a favorable environment for agriculture in the bordering areas of Ontario, Ohio, Michigan, Pennsylvania, and New York. The Lake Erie sections of western New York State have a suitable climate for growing grapes, and in Chautauqua County there have been many vineyards and wineries in the area as well as in Erie County in northwestern Pennsylvania. Much grape juice is produced in this region. and since it is farther north than comparable wine-growing areas in the world, the season is longer in terms of light. A longer growing season due to the lake-moderated temperatures make the risk of early frosts less likely.</p><br>
<p>The drainage basin has led to well fertilized soil. The north coast of Ohio is widely referred to as its nursery capital.</p><br>
<h3>Tourism</h3><br>
<h4>Diving for shipwrecks</h4><br>
<p>Lake Erie is a favorite for divers since there are many shipwrecks, perhaps 1,400 to 8,000 according to one estimate, of which about 270 are "confirmed shipwreck locations." Most wrecks are undiscovered but believed to be well preserved and in good condition and at most only 200 ft below the water surface. One report suggests there are more "wrecks per square mile" than any other freshwater location, including wrecks from Native American watercraft. There are efforts to identify shipwreck sites and survey the lake floor to map the location of underwater sites, possibly for further study or exploration. While the lake is relatively warmer than the other Great Lakes, there is a thermocline, meaning that as a diver descends, the water temperature drops about 30 &deg;F, requiring a wetsuit. One estimate is that Lake Erie has a quarter of all 8,000 estimated shipwrecks in the Great Lakes. They are preserved because the water is cold and salt-free creating "intact time capsules down there". Divers have a policy of not removing or touching anything at the wreck else the "next person won&#39;t be able to see it&quot when artifacts were removed on occasion, it was met by "outrage" by the diving community. The cold conditions make diving difficult and "strenuous" requiring divers with skill and experience. One charter firm from western New York State takes about 1,500 divers to Lake Erie shipwrecks in a typical season from April through October.</p><br>
<p>In 1991, the 19th-century sidewheeler Atlantic was discovered. It had sunk in a collision with the Ogdensburg, a steamship sometimes referred to as a "propeller" according to 19th-century parlance, in 1852, 6 mi west of Long Point, Ontario and survivors from the Atlantic were saved by the Ogdensburg. One account suggests 130 people drowned while another suggests about 20 drowned. The aftermath of the disaster led to calls for authorities to seize captains of both ships so "that the cause of the collision may be correctly ascertained" as well as calls for more lifeboats and improved life preservers since the earlier ones proved to be "totally useless." There was speculation that the sunken vessel had been a gambling ship, and therefore there might have been money aboard, but most historians were skeptical. In 1998, the shipwreck of the vessel Adventure was the first shipwreck registered with the state of Ohio as an "underwater archaeological site&quot when it was discovered that the Adventure&#39;s propeller had been removed and given to a junkyard, the propeller was rescued days before being converted to scrap metal and brought back to the dive site and back to its underwater home. In 2003, divers discovered the steamer Canobie near Presque Isle, which sunk in 1921. Other wrecks include the fish tub Neal H. Dow (1910), the Elderado "steamer-cum-barge" (1880), the W. R. Hanna, the Dundee which sank north of Cleveland in 1900, the F. H. Prince, and The Craftsman. In 2007, the wreck of the steamship named after Mad Anthony Wayne was found near Vermilion, Ohio in 50 ft of water; the vessel sank in 1850 after its boilers exploded, and 38 people died. The wreck belongs to the state of Ohio and "salvaging it is illegal" but divers can visit it after it is surveyed. In addition, there are wrecks of smaller vessels, with occasional drownings of fishermen.</p><br>
<p>The finding of the well-preserved wreck of the Canadian-built British troop transport warship Caledonia, sunk during the War of 1812, has led to accusations about plundering of the site and legal wrangling about whether the vessel should be resurfaced in time for the 2013 war&#39;s bicentennial.</p><br>
<p>Research into shipwrecks has been organized by the Peachman Lake Erie Shipwreck Research Center, or PLESRC, located on the grounds of the Great Lakes Historical Society. In 2008, the Great Lakes Historical Society announced plans to survey the underwater battle site of the Battle of Lake Erie in preparation for the bicentennial celebration of the battle in 2013.</p><br>
<h4>Public parks</h4><br>
<p>There are numerous public parks around the lake. In western Pennsylvania, a wildlife reserve was established in 1991 in Springfield Township for hiking, fishing, cross-country skiing and walking along the beach. In Ontario, Long Point is a peninsula on the northwest shore near Port Rowan that extends 20 mi into Lake Erie which is a stopover for birds migrating as well as turtles; one reporter found a "turtle-crossing" sign along the road; Long Point Provincial Park is located there and has been designated as a UNESCO Biosphere reserve. In Ontario&#39;s Sand Hill Park, east of Port Burwell, there is a 450 ft high dune which is so steep it requires people to "crawl like crabs to the summit" but they are rewarded with spectacular lake views.</p><br>
<p>Crystal Beach, in the Village of Crystal Beach, Ontario, at the eastern end of the lake, is one of many South-facing beaches on the Canadian side. As such, it is perfectly situated for sun-lovers and bathers, facing the sun from sunrise to spectacular sunset. The beach is gently sloping with no sharp drop-offs or rip currents, and is usually cooled by southwest breezes, even on the hottest days.</p><br>
<p>In southern Michigan, Sterling State Park offers campgrounds, 1,300 acre for hiking, biking, fishing, boating, with a sand beach for sunbathing, swimming, and picnicking.</p><br>
<h4>Biking</h4><br>
<p>The New York Times reporter Donna Marchetti took a bike tour around the Lake Erie perimeter in 1997, traveling 40 mi per day and staying at bed and breakfasts. They went through the cities of Cleveland, Erie, Windsor, Detroit and Toledo as well as resort towns, vineyards, and cornfields. The trip highlights were the "small port towns and rural farmlands of southern Ontario". There are few bike repair shops in Ontario on the route.</p><br>
<h4>Islands</h4><br>
<p>Lake Erie islands tend to be in the westernmost part of the lake and have different characters. Some of them include:</p><br>
<p>Kelleys Island has activities such as beach lounging, hiking, biking, and viewing the deep glacial grooves in the bedrock limestone.</p><br>
<p>Pelee Island is reached by ferry from Leamington, Ontario or by plane or ferry in Sandusky, Ohio and is the largest of the Lake Erie islands. The island has a unique ecosystem with plants rarely found in Canada such as wild hyacinth, yellow horse gentian, and prickly pear cactus. There are two endangered snakes including the blue racer and the Lake Erie water snake. Songbirds migrate there in spring, and monarch butterflies stop over during the fall.</p><br>
<p>South Bass Island has the island-village of Put-in-Bay, Ohio which attracts young crowds who sometimes are prone to general merriment. It has been described as a party island with scenic rocky cliffs with a year-round population in the hundreds that grows during summer.</p><br>
<h4>Water sports</h4><br>
<p>Kayaking has become more popular along the lake, particularly in places such as Put-in-Bay, Ohio. There are spectacular views with steep cliffs with exotic wildlife and "100 miles of paddle-friendly shoreline." Long distance swimmers have swum across the lake to set records; for example, a 15-year-old amputee swam the 12 mi stretch across the lake in 2001. In 2008, 14-year-old Jade Scognamillo swam from New Yorks Sturgeon Point to Ontarios Crystal Beach and completed the 11.9-mile (19.2-km) swim in five hours, 40 minutes and 35 seconds, and also became the youngest swimmer to make the crossing. It is illegal for swimmers younger than 14 to attempt such a crossing. In Port Dover, Ontario, brave swimmers do high-dives at the annual Polar Bear Swim on the beach; in 2011, the water was 32 &deg;F, although the air was warmer, which did not deter 14-year-old youth Austin Merrell. Currents can pose a problem, and there have been occasional incidents of drownings.</p><br>
<h4>Lighthouses</h4><br>
<p>The lake is dotted by distinct lighthouses. A lighthouse off the coast of Cleveland, beset with cold lake winter spray, has an unusual artistic icy shape, although sometimes ice prevents the light from being seen by maritime vessels.</p><br>
<h4>Towns along the lake</h4><br>
<p>A New York Times reporter, biking through the region in 1997, found the Ontario town of Port Stanley to be the "prettiest of the port towns" with a lively "holiday air" but no "ticky-tacky commercialism".</p><br>
<h4>Vineyards</h4><br>
<p>There are numerous vineyards around the lake, including ones on Pelee Island which makes wines including pinot noir, riesling and chardonnay.</p><br>
<h4>Summer rentals</h4><br>
<p>People can rent summer houses and cabins near the lake to enjoy the beaches, swimming, as well as be close to activities such as wine tours and fishing and water parks. Presque Isle is a peninsula jutting out into the lake in northwestern Pennsylvania which has nice beaches, although there were incidents in 2006 when beaches had to be closed because of unexplained unhealthy water conditions with E. Coli bacteria.</p><br>
<p>It was described as a "spit of sand, trees and swamp that arcs off the shore" with seafood restaurants and beautiful sunsets. Pelee Island, Canada&#39;s southernmost point and only three miles away from Ohio, is a place that "forces you to do nothing":</p><br>
<h4>Pleasure cruises</h4><br>
<p>Pleasure boat operators offer dinner cruises in the Cleveland area on the Cuyahoga River as well as Lake Erie.</p><br>
<h4>Folklore</h4><br>
<p>Lake Erie Monster. There have been reports of persons spotting a creature akin to the Loch Ness Monster, but there have been no confirmed reports. There were reports in 1990 of people seeing a "large creature moving in the water about 1,000 ft from their boat" described as black in color, about 35 ft long, with a "snakelike head", and moved as fast as a boat. Five other people reported seeing something similar on three separate occasions but there is no scientific evidence of such a creature. There is a beer named after the Lake Erie Monster as well as a hockey team. There were reports of people spotting a sea creature in the 19th century which was sometimes called "Bessie" or "South Bay Bessie".</p><br>
<p>Lake Erie Mirage Effect. There have been sporadic reports of people in Cleveland being able to see the Canadian shoreline as if it were immediately offshore, even though Canada is 50 mi from Cleveland. It has been speculated that this is a weather-related phenomenon, working on similar principles as a mirage.</p><br>
<h3>Shipping traffic</h3><br>
<p>The lake has been a "bustling thoroughfare" for maritime vessels for centuries. Ships headed eastward can take the Welland Canal and a series of eight locks descending 326 ft to Lake Ontario which takes about 12 hours, according to one source. Thousands of ships make this journey each year. During the 19th century, ships could enter the Buffalo River and travel the Erie Canal eastward to Albany then south to New York City along the Hudson River. Generally there is heavy traffic on the lake except during the winter months from January through March when ice prevents vessels from traveling safely. In 2007, there was a protest against Ontarios energy policy which allows the shipping of coal in the lake; GreenPeace activists climbed a ladder on a freighter and "locked themselves to the conveyor belt device that helps to unload the ships cargo&quot three activists were arrested and the ship was delayed for more than four hours, and anti-coal messages were painted on the ship.</p><br>
<p>The ship traffic in Lake Erie being the highest among the Great Lakes and roughest of the lakes has led to it having the highest number of known shipwrecks in the Great Lakes. There have been other accidents as well; for example, in 2010 according to The Star, crewmen from the freighter Hermann Schoening were sickened by phosphine gas which had been used to fumigate or control pests; rescuers took them by tugboat to receive medical attention.</p><br>
<h3>Ports</h3><br>
<p>The Port of Cleveland generated over $350 million and over 15 million tons of cargo in a recent year. The current port facility is unable to handle larger cargo ships, and the cranes needed to lift goods such as steel to truck trailers are insufficient to meet current shipping standards.</p><br>
<h3>Ferryboats</h3><br>
<p>Ferryboats operate in numerous places. But plans to operate a ferryboat between the USA port of Erie and the Ontario port of Port Dover ran into a slew of political problems, including security restrictions on both sides as well as additional fees required to hire border inspectors. In particular, Canada was described as having a "sticky set of laws&quot the project was abandoned.</p><br>
<p>The Great Lakes Circle Tour is a designated scenic road system connecting all of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River. One reporter thought the roads on the Canadian side were narrower, sometimes without shoulders, but were less trafficked except for the roads around the Ontario towns of Fort Erie and Port Colborne. Drivers can cross from the United States to the Canadian town of Fort Erie by going over the Peace Bridge.</p><br>
<h3>Lake Erie airspace</h3><br>
<p>In 2004, debris from a plane carrying 9 people was found off Lake Erie isle.</p><br>
<h3>Border crossings</h3><br>
<p>Since the border between the two nations is largely unpatrolled, it is possible for people to cross undetected from one country to the other, in either direction, by boat. In 2010, Canadian police arrested persons crossing the border illegally from the United States to Canada, near the Ontario town of Amherstburg.</p><br>
<p>Lake Ontario is one of the five Great Lakes of North America. It is surrounded on the north, west, and southwest by the Canadian province of Ontario, and on the south and east by the American state of New York, whose water boundaries meet in the middle of the lake. Ontario, Canadas most populous province, was named for the lake. In the Huron language, the name Ontaríio means "Lake of Shining Waters". Its primary inlet is the Niagara River from Lake Erie. The last in the Great Lakes chain, Lake Ontario serves as the outlet to the Atlantic Ocean via the Saint Lawrence River.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Lake Ontario is the easternmost of the Great Lakes and the smallest in surface area (7,340 sq mi, 18,960 km), although it exceeds Lake Erie in volume (393 cu mi, 1,639 km). It is the 14th largest lake in the world. When its islands are included, the lake has a shoreline that is 712 mi long. As the last lake in the Great Lakes hydrologic chain, Lake Ontario has the lowest mean surface elevation of the lakes at 243 feet (74 m) The lakes average depth is 47 fathoms 1 foot (283 ft; 86 m), with a maximum depth of 133 fathoms 4 feet (802 ft; 244 m).</p><br>
<p>Baymouth bars built by prevailing winds and currents have created a significant number of lagoons and sheltered harbors, mostly near (but not limited to) Prince Edward County, Ontario and the easternmost shores. Perhaps the best-known example is Toronto Bay, chosen as the site of the Upper Canada (Ontario) capital for its strategic harbour. Other prominent examples include Hamilton Harbour, Irondequoit Bay, Presquile Bay, and Sodus Bay. The bars themselves are the sites of long beaches, such as Sandbanks Provincial Park and Sandy Island Beach State Park. These sand bars are often associated with large wetlands, which support large numbers of plant and animal species, as well as providing important rest areas for migratory birds. Presquile, on the north shore of Lake Ontario, is particularly significant in this regard. One unique feature of the lake is the Z-shaped Bay of Quinte which separates Prince Edward County from the Ontario mainland, save for a 2 mi isthmus near Trenton; this feature also supports many wetlands and aquatic plants, as well as associated fisheries.</p><br>
<p>Major rivers draining into Lake Ontario include the Niagara River, Don River, Humber River, Trent River, Cataraqui River, Genesee River, Oswego River, Black River, Little Salmon River, and the Salmon River.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The lake basin was carved out of soft, weak Silurian-age rocks by the Wisconsin ice sheet during the last ice age. The action of the ice occurred along the pre-glacial Ontarian River valley which had approximately the same orientation as todays basin. Material that was pushed southward by the ice sheet left landforms such as drumlins, kames, and moraines, both on the modern land surface and the lake bottom, reorganizing the regions entire drainage system. As the ice sheet retreated toward the north, it still dammed the St. Lawrence valley outlet, so that the lake surface was at a higher level. This stage is known as Lake Iroquois. During that time the lake drained through present-day Syracuse, New York into the Mohawk River, thence to the Hudson River and the Atlantic. The shoreline created during this stage can be easily recognized by the (now dry) beaches and wave-cut hills 10 to 25 miles (15 to 40 km) from the present shoreline.</p><br>
<p>When the ice finally receded from the St. Lawrence valley, the outlet was below sea level, and for a short time the lake became a bay of the Atlantic Ocean, in association with the Champlain Sea. Gradually the land rebounded from the release of the weight of about 6,500 feet (2,000 m) of ice that had been stacked on it. It is still rebounding about 12 inches (30 cm) per century in the St. Lawrence area. Since the ice receded from the area last, the most rapid rebound still occurs there. This means that the lake bed is gradually tilting southward, inundating the south shore and turning river valleys into bays. Both north and south shores experience shoreline erosion, but the tilting amplifies this effect on the south shore, causing loss to property owners.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The name Ontario is derived from the Huron word Ontarí&#39;io, which means "great lake". The lake was a border between the Huron people and the Iroquois Confederacy in the pre-Columbian era. In the 1600s, the Iroquois drove out the Huron from southern Ontario and settled the northern shores of Lake Ontario. When the Iroquois withdrew and the Anishnabeg / Ojibwa / Mississaugas moved in from the north to southern Ontario, they retained the Iroquois name.</p><br>
<p>It is believed that the first European to reach the lake was Étienne Brûlé in 1615. As was their practice, the French explorers introduced other names for the lake. In 1632 and 1656, the lake was referred to as Lac de St. Louis or Lake St. Louis by Samuel de Champlain and cartographer Nicolas Sanson respectively (likely for Louis XIV of France) In 1660 Jesuit historian Francis Creuxius coined the name Lacus Ontarius. In a map drawn in the Relation des Jésuites (1662–1663), the lake bears the legend "Lac Ontario ou des Iroquois" with the name "Ondiara" in smaller type. A French map produced in 1712 (currently in the Canadian Museum of History), created by military engineer Jean-Baptiste de Couagne, identified Lake Ontario as "Lac Frontenac" named after Louis de Buade, Comte de Frontenac et de Palluau. He was a French soldier, courtier, and Governor General of New France from 1672 to 1682 and from 1689 to his death in 1698.</p><br>
<p>Artifacts which are believed to be of Norse origin have been found in the area of Sodus Bay, indicating the possibility of trading by the indigenous peoples with Norse explorers on the east coast of North America.</p><br>
<p>A series of trading posts were established by both the British and French, such as Fort Frontenac (Kingston) in 1673, Fort Oswego in 1722, Fort Rouillé (Toronto) in 1750. After the French and Indian War, all forts around the lake were under British control. The United States did not take possession of forts on present-day American territory until the signing of the Jay Treaty in 1794. Permanent, non-military European settlement began during the American Revolution. As the easternmost and nearest lake to the Atlantic seaboard of Canada and the United States, population centres here are among the oldest in the Great Lakes basin, with Kingston, Ontario, formerly the capital of Canada, dating to the 1670s (Fort Frontenac). The lake became a hub of commercial activity following the War of 1812 with canal building on both sides of the border and heavy travel by lake steamers. Steamer activity peaked in the mid-19th century before competition from railway lines.</p><br>
<p>In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a type of scow known as a stone hooker was in operation on the north-west shore, particularly around Port Credit and Bronte. Stonehooking was the practice of raking flat fragments of Dundas shale from the shallow lake floor of the area for use in construction, particularly in the growing city of Toronto.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology and environmental concerns</h2><br>
<p>The Great Lakes watershed is a region of high biodiversity, and Lake Ontario is important for its diversity of birds, fish, reptiles amphibians and plants. Many of these special species are associated with shorelines, particularly sand dunes, lagoons, and wetlands. The importance of wetlands to the lake has been appreciated, and many of the larger wetlands have protected status. However, these wetlands are changing in part because the natural water level fluctuations have been reduced. Many wetland plants are dependent upon low water levels to reproduce. When water levels are stabilized, the area and diversity of the marsh is reduced. This is particularly true of meadow marsh (also known as wet meadow wetlands); for example, in Eel Bay near Alexandria Bay, regulation of lake levels has resulted in large losses of wet meadow. Often this is accompanied by the invasion of cattails, which displace many of the native plant species and reduce plant diversity. Eutrophication may accelerate this process by providing nitrogen and phosphorus for the more rapid growth of competitively dominant plants. Similar effects are occurring on the north shore, in wetlands such as Presqu&#39;ile, which have interdunal wetlands called pannes, with high plant diversity and many unusual plant species.</p><br>
<p>Most of the forests around the lake are deciduous forests dominated by trees including maple, oak, beech, ash and basswood. These are classified as part of the Mixedwood Plains Ecozone by Environment Canada, or as the Eastern Great Lakes and Hudson Lowlands by the United States Environmental Protection Agency, or as the Great Lakes Ecoregion by The Nature Conservancy. Deforestation in the vicinity of the lake has had many negative impacts, including loss of forest birds, extinction of native salmon, and increased amounts of sediment flowing into the lake. In some areas more than 90 percent of the forest cover has been removed and replaced by agriculture. Certain tree species, such as hemlock, have also been particularly depleted by past logging activity. Guidelines for restoration stress the importance of maintaining and restoring forest cover, particularly along streams and wetlands.</p><br>
<p>The open water is less-affected by shoreline features, such as wetlands, and more affected by nutrient levels that control the production of algae. Algae are the basis of the open water food web, and the source of primary production that ends up as Lake Trout and Walleye at the top of the open water food web.</p><br>
<p>Like the other Great Lakes, Lake Ontario used to have an important commercial fishery. It has been largely destroyed, mostly by over-fishing. Consider the Lake Sturgeon as but one example. Lake sturgeon are huge fish—they can grow up to three meters long and exceed 190 kg in weight. The females mature slowly and require decades to reach sexual maturity. It was once an abundant species in Lake Ontario. "In 1860, this species, taken on incidental catches of other fishes, was killed and dumped back in the lake, piled up on shore to dry and be burned, fed to pigs, or dug into the earth as fertilizer." It was even stacked like cordwood and used to fuel steamboats. Once its value was realized, "They were taken by every available means from spearing and jigging to set lines of baited or unbaited hooks laid on the bottom to trapnets, poundnets and gillnets." Over 5 million pounds were taken from adjoining Lake Erie in a single year. The fishery collapsed, largely by 1900. They have never recovered. Like most sturgeons, the lake sturgeon is rare now, and is protected in many areas. Populations in the Oswego River are being actively managed for recovery.</p><br>
<p>This food web has been damaged not only by over-fishing, and changes in nutrient levels, but also by other types of pollution from industrial chemicals, agricultural fertilizers, untreated sewage, phosphates from laundry detergents, and pesticides. Some pollutant chemicals that have been found in the lake include DDT, benzopyrene and other pesticides; PCBs, aramite, chromium, lead, mirex, mercury, and carbon tetrachloride. The International Joint Commission has identified areas where pollution is particularly intense (point sources) and mapped them as Areas of Concern. A Remedial Action Plan has been developed for each area. Some Lake Ontario areas of concern include the Oswego River and Rochester Embayment on the American side, and Hamilton Harbour and Toronto on the Canadian Side.</p><br>
<p>By the 1960s and 1970s, the increased pollution caused frequent algal blooms to occur in the summer. These blooms killed large numbers of fish, and left decomposing piles of filamentous algae and dead fish along the shores. At times the blooms became so thick that waves could not break. Fish eating birds such as osprey, bald eagle and cormorant were being poisoned by contaminated fish. Since the 1960s and 1970s, environmental concerns have forced a cleanup of industrial and municipal wastes. Cleanup has been accomplished through better treatment plants, tighter environmental regulations, deindustrialization and increased public awareness. Today, Lake Ontario has recovered some of its pristine quality; for example, walleye, a fish species considered as a marker of clean water, are now found. However, regional airshed pollution remains a concern. The lake has also become an important sport fishery, although with introduced species (Coho and Chinook salmon) rather than the native species. Bald eagle and osprey populations are also beginning to recover.</p><br>
<p>Invasive species are a problem for Lake Ontario, particularly lamprey and zebra mussels. Lamprey are being controlled by poisoning in the juvenile stage in the streams where they breed. Zebra mussels in particular are difficult to control, and pose major challenges for the lake and its waterways.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The lake has a natural seiche rhythm of eleven minutes. The seiche effect normally is only about inches (2 cm) but can be greatly amplified by earth movement, winds, and atmospheric pressure changes.</p><br>
<p>Because of its great depth, the lake as a whole never freezes in winter, but an ice sheet covering between 10% and 90% of the lake area typically develops, depending on the severity of the winter. Ice sheets typically form along the shoreline and in slack water bays, where the lake is not as deep. During the winters of 1877 and 1878, the ice sheet coverage was up to 95–100% in most of the lake. In the winter of 1812, the ice cover was stable enough that the American naval commander stationed at Sackets Harbor feared a British attack from Kingston, over the ice.</p><br>
<p>When the cold winds of winter pass over the warmer water of the lake, they pick up moisture and drop it as lake-effect snow. Since the prevailing winter winds are from the northwest, the southern and southeastern shoreline of the lake is referred to as the snowbelt. In some winters the area between Oswego and Pulaski may receive twenty or more feet (600 cm) of snowfall. Also impacted by lake-effect snow is the Tug Hill Plateau, an area of elevated land that is about 20 mi east of Lake Ontario, creating ideal conditions for lake-effect snowfall. The "Hill", as it is often referred to, typically receives more snow than any other region in the eastern United States. As a result, Tug Hill is a popular location for winter enthusiasts, such as snow-mobilers and cross-country skiers. Lake-effect snow often extends inland as far as Syracuse, with that city often recording the most winter snowfall accumulation of any large city in the United States. Other cities in the world receive more snow annually, such as Quebec City, which averages 135 in, and Sapporo, Japan, which receives 250 in each year and is often regarded as the snowiest city in the world.</p><br>
<p>Foggy conditions (particularly in fall) can be created by thermal contrasts and can be an impediment for recreational boaters. In a normal winter, Lake Ontario will be at most one quarter ice-covered, in a mild winter almost completely unfrozen. Lake Ontario has completely frozen over on five recorded occasions: from about January 20 to about March 20, 1830; in 1874; in 1893; in 1912; and in February 1934.</p><br>
<p>Lake breezes in spring tend to retard fruit bloom until the frost danger is past, and in the autumn delay the onset of fall frost, particularly on the south shore. Cool onshore winds also retard early bloom of plants and flowers until later in the spring season, protecting them from possible frost damage. Such microclimatic effects have enabled tender fruit production in a continental climate, with the southwest shore supporting a major fruit-growing area. Apples, cherries, pears, plums, and peaches are grown in many commercial orchards around Rochester. Between Stoney Creek and Niagara-on-the-Lake on the Niagara Peninsula is a major fruit-growing and wine-making area. The wine-growing region extends over the international border into Niagara and Orleans counties. Apple varieties that tolerate a more extreme climate are grown on the lake&#39;s north shore, around Cobourg.</p><br>
<h2>Settlements</h2><br>
<p>A large conurbation called the Golden Horseshoe occupies the lakes westernmost shores, anchored by the cities of Toronto and Hamilton. Ports on the Canadian side include St. Catharines, Oshawa, Cobourg and Kingston, near the St. Lawrence River outlet. Close to 9 million people or over a quarter of Canadas population lives within the watershed of Lake Ontario. The American shore is largely rural, with the exception of Rochester and the much smaller ports at Oswego and Sackets Harbor. The city of Syracuse is 40 mi inland, connected to the lake by the New York State Canal System. Over 2 million people live in Lake Ontario&#39;s American watershed.</p><br>
<p>A high-speed passenger/vehicle ferry, the Spirit of Ontario I, operated between Toronto and Rochester from June 17, 2004, to January 10, 2006, when the service was cancelled. The Crystal Lynn II, out of Irondequoit, New York, has been operating between Irondequoit Bay and Henderson, New York since May 2000, operated by Capt. Bob Tein.</p><br>
<p>Toronto</p><br>
<p>Mississauga</p><br>
<p>Hamilton</p><br>
<p>Burlington</p><br>
<p>Oshawa</p><br>
<p>Kingston</p><br>
<p>Whitby</p><br>
<p>Stoney Creek</p><br>
<p>Grimsby</p><br>
<p>Oakville</p><br>
<p>St. Catharines</p><br>
<p>Port Hope</p><br>
<p>Cobourg</p><br>
<p>Brighton</p><br>
<p>Pickering</p><br>
<p>Ajax</p><br>
<p>Bowmanville</p><br>
<p>Belleville</p><br>
<p>Trenton</p><br>
<p>Niagara-on-the-Lake</p><br>
<p>Rochester</p><br>
<p>Greece</p><br>
<p>Irondequoit</p><br>
<p>Webster</p><br>
<p>Oswego</p><br>
<p>Fair Haven</p><br>
<p>Sackets Harbor</p><br>
<p>Cape Vincent</p><br>
<p>Three Mile Bay</p><br>
<p>Wilson</p><br>
<p>Chaumont</p><br>
<h3>Ocean and lake navigation</h3><br>
<p>The Great Lakes Waterway connects the lake sidestream to the Atlantic Ocean via the St. Lawrence Seaway, and upstream to the other rivers in the chain via the Welland Canal and to Lake Erie. The Trent-Severn Waterway for pleasure boats connects Lake Ontario at the Bay of Quinte to Georgian Bay (Lake Huron), via Lake Simcoe. The Oswego Canal connects the lake at Oswego to the New York State Canal System, with outlets to the Hudson River, Lake Erie, and Lake Champlain.</p><br>
<p>The Rideau Canal, also for pleasure boats, connects Lake Ontario at Kingston to the Ottawa River in downtown Ottawa.</p><br>
<h3>Lighthouses</h3><br>
<p>Beach Canal Lighthouse</p><br>
<p>Braddock Point Light</p><br>
<p>Charlotte-Genesee Lighthouse</p><br>
<p>Gibraltar Point Lighthouse</p><br>
<p>Oswego Harbor West Pierhead Light</p><br>
<p>Presqu&#39;ile Lighthouse</p><br>
<p>Selkirk Lighthouse</p><br>
<p>Sodus Point Light</p><br>
<p>Stony Point Light</p><br>
<p>Thirty Mile Point Light</p><br>
<h3>Islands</h3><br>
<p>Nearly all of Lake Ontarios islands are located on the eastern and north-eastern shores, between the Prince Edward County headland and the lakes outlet at Kingston. The Toronto Islands on the north-western shore are the remnants of a sand spit formed by coastal erosion, whereas the mostly larger eastern islands are underlain by the basement rock found throughout the region. Wolfe Island, located near Kingston at the St. Lawrence outlet, is the largest island in the basin. It is accessible by ferry from both Canada and the USA</p><br>
<p>Toronto Islands – only islands on the western end of the lake</p><br>
<p>Association Island</p><br>
<p>Galloo Island – and nearby Little Galloo Island, Calf Island, and Stony Island</p><br>
<p>Amherst Island</p><br>
<p>Simcoe Island</p><br>
<p>Garden Island</p><br>
<p>Grenadier Island</p><br>
<p>Waupoos Island</p><br>
<p>Nicholson Island</p><br>
<p>Big Island</p><br>
<h3>Other topics</h3><br>
<p>The Great Lakes Circle Tour and Seaway Trail are designated scenic road systems connecting all of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River. As the Seaway Trail is posted on the USA side only, Lake Ontario is the only of the five Great Lakes to have no posted bi-national circle tour.</p><br>
<p>In the 1800s, there were reports of an alleged creature, similar to the so-called Loch Ness Monster, being sighted in the lake. The creature is described as large with a long neck, green in colour, and generally causes a break in the surface waves.</p><br>
<h2>Swims across the lake</h2><br>
<h2>Industrialisation</h2><br>
<p>The government of Ontario, which holds the lakebed rights of the Canadian portion of the lake under the Beds of Navigable Waters Act, In Trillium Power Wind Corporation v. Ontario (Natural Resources), the Superior Court of Justice held that Trillium Power—since 2004 an "Applicant of Record" who had invested $35,000 in fees and, when in 2011 the Crown made a policy decision against offshore windfarms, claimed an injury of $2.25 billion—disclosed no reasonable cause of action.</p><br>
<p>While the Great Lakes once supported an industrial-scale fishery, with record hauls in 1899, overfishing later blighted the industry. Today only recreational fishing activities exist.</p><br>
<h2>Images</h2><br>
<p>Lake Ladoga  is a freshwater lake located in the Republic of Karelia and Leningrad Oblast in northwestern Russia just outside the outskirts of Saint Petersburg.</p><br>
<p>It is the largest lake entirely in Europe, and the 14th largest freshwater lake by area in the world. Ladoga Lacus, a methane lake on Saturn&#39;s moon Titan, is named after the lake.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>In one of Nestor&#39;s chronicles from the 12th century he mentions a lake called "the Great Nevo", a clear link to the Neva River and, possibly furthermore, to Finnish nevo "sea" or neva "bog, quagmire".</p><br>
<p>Ancient Norse sagas and Hanseatic treaties both mention a city made of lakes named Old Norse Aldeigja or Aldoga. Since the beginning of the 14th century this hydronym was commonly known as Ladoga. According to T. N. Jackson, it can be taken "almost for granted, that the name of Ladoga first referred to the river, then the city, and only then the lake." Therefore, he considers the primary hydronym Ladoga to originate in the eponymous inflow to the lower reaches of the Volkhov River whose Finnic name was Alodejoki (corresponding to modern Alojen joki) "river of the lowlands".</p><br>
<p>The Germanic toponym (Aldeigja → Aldoga) was soon borrowed by the Slavic population and transformed by means of the Old Russian metathesis ald- → lad- to Ладога. The Old Norse intermediary word between Finnish and Old Russian word is fully supported by archeology, since the Scandinavians first appeared in Ladoga in the early 750s, that is, a couple of decades before the Slavs.</p><br>
<p>Other theories about the origin of the name derive it from aalto "wave" and aaltokas "wavy&quot or from the Russian dialectal word алодь, meaning "open lake, extensive water field". Eugene Helimski by contrast, offers an etymology rooted in German. In his opinion, the primary name of the lake was *Aldauga "old source", associated to the open sea, in contrast to the name of the Neva River (flowing from Lake Ladoga) which would derive from the German expression for "the new". Through the intermediate form *Aldaugja, Aldeigja cam about, referring to "Ladoga (city)".</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The lake has an average surface area of 17,891 km (excluding the islands). Its north-to-south length is 219 km and its average width is 83 km; the average depth is 51 m, although it reaches a maximum of 230 m in the north-western part. Basin area: 276,000 km, volume: 837 km (earlier estimated as 908 km);. There are around 660 islands, with a total area of about 435 km. Ladoga is, on average, 5 m above sea level. Most of the islands, including the famous Valaam archipelago, Kilpola and Konevets, are situated in the northwest of the lake.</p><br>
<p>Separated from the Baltic Sea by the Karelian Isthmus, it drains into the Gulf of Finland via the Neva River.</p><br>
<p>Lake Ladoga is navigable, being a part of the Volga-Baltic Waterway connecting the Baltic Sea with the Volga River. The Ladoga Canal bypasses the lake in the southern part, connecting the Neva to the Svir.</p><br>
<p>The basin of Lake Ladoga includes about 50,000 lakes and 3,500 rivers longer than 10 km. About 85% of the water inflow is due to tributaries, 13% is due to precipitation, and 2% is due to underground waters.</p><br>
<h3>Maps</h3><br>
<h2>Geological history</h2><br>
<p>Geologically, the Lake Ladoga depression is a graben and syncline structure of Proterozoic age (Precambrian). This "Ladoga–Pasha structure", as it known, hosts Jotnian sediments. During the Pleistocene glaciations the depression was partially stripped of its sedimentary rock fill by glacial overdeepening. During the Last Glacial Maximum, about 17,000 years BP, the lake served likely as a channel that concentrated ice of the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet into an ice stream that fed glacier lobes further east.</p><br>
<p>Deglaciation following the Weichsel glaciation took place in the Lake Ladoga basin between 12,500 and 11,500 radiocarbon years BP. Lake Ladoga was initially part of the Baltic Ice Lake (70–80 m. above present sea level), a historical freshwater stage of Baltic Sea. It is possible, though not certain, that Ladoga was isolated from it during regression of the subsequent Yoldia Sea brackish stage (10,200–9,500 BP). The isolation threshold should be at Heinjoki to the east of Vyborg, where the Baltic Sea and Ladoga were connected by a strait or a river outlet at least until the formation of the River Neva, and possibly even much later, until the 12th century AD or so.</p><br>
<p>At 9,500 BP, Lake Onega, previously draining into the White Sea, started emptying into Ladoga via the River Svir. Between 9,500 and 9,100 BP, during the transgression of Ancylus Lake, the next freshwater stage of the Baltic, Ladoga certainly became part of it, even if they hadn&#39;t been connected immediately before. During the Ancylus Lake subsequent regression, around 8,800 BP Ladoga became isolated.</p><br>
<p>Ladoga slowly transgressed in its southern part due to uplift of the Baltic Shield in the north. It has been hypothesized, but not proven, that waters of the Litorina Sea, the next brackish-water stage of the Baltic, occasionally invaded Ladoga between 7,000 and 5,000 BP. Around 5,000 BP the waters of the Saimaa Lake penetrated Salpausselkä and formed a new outlet, River Vuoksi, entering Lake Ladoga in the northwestern corner and raising its level by 1–2 m.</p><br>
<p>The River Neva originated when the Ladoga waters at last broke through the threshold at Porogi into the lower portions of Izhora River, then a tributary of the Gulf of Finland, between 4,000 and 2,000 BP. Dating of some sediments in the northwestern part of Lake Ladoga suggests it happened at 3,100 radiocarbon years BP (3,410–3,250 calendar years BP).</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife</h2><br>
<p>The Ladoga is rich with fish. 48 forms (species and infraspecific taxa) of fish have been encountered in the lake, including roach, carp bream, zander, European perch, ruffe, endemic variety of smelt, two varieties of Coregonus albula (vendace), eight varieties of Coregonus lavaretus, a number of other Salmonidae as well as, albeit rarely, endangered European sea sturgeon. Commercial fishing was once a major industry but has been hurt by overfishing. After the war, between 1945–1954, the total annual catch increased and reached a maximum of 4,900 tonnes. However, unbalanced fishery led to the drastic decrease of catch in 1955–1963, sometimes to 1,600 tonnes per year. Trawling has been forbidden in Lake Ladoga since 1956 and some other restrictions were imposed. The situation gradually recovered, and in 1971–1990 the catch ranged between 4,900 and 6,900 tonnes per year, about the same level as the total catch in 1938. Fish farms and recreational fishing are developing.</p><br>
<p>It has its own endemic ringed seal subspecies known as the Ladoga seal.</p><br>
<p>Since the beginning of the 1960s Ladoga has become considerably eutrophicated.Holopainen, Anna-Liisa et al. (1996)</p><br>
<p>. Hydrobiologia 322.1–3, 9–16.</p><br>
<p>Nizhnesvirsky Natural Reserve is situated along the shore of Lake Ladoga immediately to the north of the mouth of the River Svir.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In the Middle Ages, the lake formed a vital part of the trade route from the Varangians to the Eastern Roman Empire, with the Norse emporium at Staraya Ladoga defending the mouth of the Volkhov since the 8th century. In the course of the Swedish–Novgorodian Wars, the area was disputed between the Novgorod Republic and Sweden. In the early 14th century, the fortresses of Korela (Kexholm) and Oreshek (Nöteborg) were established along the banks of the lake.</p><br>
<p>The ancient Valaam Monastery was founded on the island of Valaam, the largest in Lake Ladoga, abandoned between 1611–1715, magnificently restored in the 18th century, and evacuated to Finland during the Winter War in 1940. In 1989 the monastic activities in the Valaam were resumed. Other historic cloisters in the vicinity are the Konevets Monastery, which sits on the Konevets island, and the Alexander-Svirsky Monastery, which preserves fine samples of medieval Muscovite architecture.</p><br>
<p>During the Ingrian War, a fraction of the Ladoga coast was occupied by Sweden. In 1617, by the Treaty of Stolbovo, the northern and western coast was ceded by Russia to Sweden. In 1721, after the Great Northern War, it was restituted to Russia by the Treaty of Nystad. Later, in 1812–1940 the lake was shared between Finland and Russia. According to the conditions of the 1920 Tartu Peace Treaty militarization of the lake was severely restricted. However, both Soviet Russia and Finland had flotillas in Ladoga (see also Finnish Ladoga Naval Detachment). After the Winter War (1939–40) according to the Moscow Peace Treaty, Ladoga, previously shared with Finland, became an internal basin of the Soviet Union.</p><br>
<p>During the Continuation War (1941–44) not only Finnish and Soviet, but also German and Italian vessels operated there (see also Naval Detachment K and Regia Marina). Under these circumstances, during much of the Siege of Leningrad (1941–44), Lake Ladoga provided the only access to the besieged city because a section of the eastern shore remained in Soviet hands. Supplies were transported into Leningrad with trucks on winter roads over the ice, the "Road of Life", and by boat in the summer. After World War II, Finland lost the Karelia region again to the USSR, and all Finnish citizens were evacuated from the ceded territory. Ladoga became an internal Soviet basin once again. The northern shore, Ladoga Karelia with the town of Sortavala, is now part of the Republic of Karelia. The western shore, Karelian Isthmus, became part of Leningrad Oblast.</p><br>
<p>Since 1996 the is an annual competition for 4x4 vehicles and ATVs that travels through over 1200 kilometers of the mud, swamp and bog that surround Lake Ladoga.</p><br>
<h2>Lists</h2><br>
<h3>Tributaries</h3><br>
<p>Svir River from Lake Onega (south-east, discharge: 790 m/s)</p><br>
<p>Volkhov River from Lake Ilmen (south, discharge: 580 m/s)</p><br>
<p>Vuoksi River (and Burnaya River) from Lake Saimaa in Finland (west, discharge: 540 m/s).</p><br>
<p>Syas River (south, discharge: 53 m/s).</p><br>
<p>Olonka River from Lake Utozero</p><br>
<h3>Towns upon the lake</h3><br>
<p>Shlisselburg (at 59&deg;56&prime;N latitude, 31&deg;02&prime;E longitude)</p><br>
<p>Novaya Ladoga (at 60&deg;06&prime;N latitude, 32&deg;18&prime;E longitude)</p><br>
<p>Syasstroy (at 60&deg;08&prime;N latitude, 32&deg;34&prime;E longitude)</p><br>
<p>Pitkyaranta (at 61&deg;34&prime;N latitude, 31&deg;28&prime;E longitude)</p><br>
<p>Sortavala (at 61&deg;42&prime;N latitude, 30&deg;41&prime;E longitude)</p><br>
<p>Lakhdenpokhya (at 61&deg;31&prime;N latitude, 30&deg;12&prime;E longitude)</p><br>
<p>Priozersk (at 61&deg;02&prime;N latitude, 30&deg;08&prime;E longitude)</p><br>
<h2>Image gallery</h2><br>
<p>Looe Island , also known as St George&#39;s Island, and historically St Michael&#39;s Island is a small island a mile from the mainland town of Looe off Cornwall, England.</p><br>
<p>According to local legend, Joseph of Arimathea landed here with the child Christ. Some scholars, including Glyn Lewis, suggest the island could be Ictis, the location described by Diodorus Siculus as a centre for the tin trade in pre-Roman Britain.</p><br>
<p>The island is now owned and managed by the Cornwall Wildlife Trust charity where access is carefully managed for the benefit of wildlife and landing is only possible via the Cornwall Wildlife Trust authorized boatman. The waters around the island are a marine nature reserve and form part of the Looe Voluntary Marine Conservation Area (VMCA). First established in 1995, the Looe VCMA covers nearly 5 km of coastline and aims to protect the coastal and marine wildlife around Looe.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>People have been living on Looe Island since the Iron Age. Evidence of early habitation includes pieces of Roman amphorae as well as stone boat anchors and Roman coins. In the Dark Ages, the island was used a seat of early Christian settlement. The child Jesus was believed to have visited the Island with his uncle, Joseph of Arimathea, who traded with the Cornish tin traders. Therefore, Looe Island became a place of pilgrimage for early Christians and a small thatched roofed chapel was built there during this time.</p><br>
<p>In the later medieval period, the island came under the overall control of Glastonbury Abbey, with the Prior of Lammana being directly responsible for its governance; the islands chapel was under the care of two Benedictine monks until 1289 when the property was sold to a local landowner. The priory was replaced by a domestic chapel served by a secular priest until the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1536 when it became property of the Crown. From the 13th to the 16th centuries it was known as St Michaels Island but after the dissolution of the monasteries, it was rededicated in 1594 as St George&#39;s Island.</p><br>
<p>Through the 17th and 18th centuries the island was a popular haunt for smugglers avoiding the British Government&#39;s revenue cutters out of Plymouth and Falmouth. The Old Guildhall Museum in Looe hold information and research about the smuggling families of Looe Island and information is also available the more recent publications about the island.</p><br>
<p>In the 20th century, Looe island was owned (and inhabited) by two sisters, Babs and Evelyn Atkins, who wrote two books: We Bought An Island (1976, ) and its sequel Tales From Our Cornish Island (1986, ). They chronicle the purchase of the island and what it was like to live there. Evelyn died in 1997 at the age of 87; Babs continued to live on the island until her death in 2004, at the age of 86. On her death, the island was bequeathed to the Cornwall Wildlife Trust; it will be preserved as a nature reserve in perpetuity. The adjoining islet, formerly known as Little Island, now renamed Trelawny Island and connected by a small bridge, was bequeathed by Miss Atkins back to the Trelawny family, who previously owned Looe Island from 1743 to 1921.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Situated in the English Channel, about one mile from East Looe in the direction of Polperro, it is about 22.5 acres in area and a mile (1.6 km) in circumference. Its highest point is 47 m above sea level. Looe Island, like much of south west England, has a mild climate with frost and snow being rare.</p><br>
<p>The island is owned and managed by the Cornwall Wildlife Trust. This is a non-profit making venture, the landing fees and other income being devoted to conserving the islands natural beauty and providing facilities. The island is open during the summer to day visitors arriving by the Trusts boat. After a short welcome talk visitors are directed to the small visitor centre from where they can pick up a copy of the self-guided trail. Visitors have some two hours on the Island and all trips are subject to tides and weather/sea state. While it is normally accessible only by the Cornwall Wildlife Trust&#39;s boat, at extremely low spring tides it is possible for the journey to be made by foot across the slippery, seaweed covered rocky sea floor. However you have to remain on the beach and promptly head back to the mainland.</p><br>
<h2>Media appearances</h2><br>
<p>In 2008, Channel 4&#39;s archaeology series Time Team visited the island to carry out an investigation into its early Christian history. They excavated the sites of Christian chapels built on both the island and on the mainland opposite. During their dig they found the remains of a Benedictine chapel that was built in c.1139 by monks from Glastonbury Abbey, a reliquary, graves and the remains of much earlier Anglo-Romano places of worship built of wood with dating evidence suggesting use by Christians before the reign of Constantine the Great.</p><br>
<p>In 1994/95 Andrew Hugill composed Island Symphony, an electro-acoustic piece utilising sampled sounds sourced over the net plus recorded natural sounds from the island itself.</p><br>
<p>Lundy is the largest island in the Bristol Channel. It lies 19 km off the coast of Devon, England, in the district of Torridge, about a third of the distance across the channel from Devon, England to South Wales. Lundy gives its name to a British sea area and is one of the islands of England. Lundy has been designated by Natural England as national character area 159, one of England&#39;s natural regions.</p><br>
<p>In 2007, Lundy had a resident population of 28 people, including volunteers. These include a warden, ranger, island manager and farmer, as well as bar and house-keeping staff. Most live in and around the village at the south of the island. Most visitors are day-trippers, although there are 23 holiday properties and a camp site for staying visitors, mostly also around the south of the island.</p><br>
<p>In a 2005 opinion poll of Radio Times readers, Lundy was named as Britains tenth greatest natural wonder. The entire island has been designated as a Site of Special Scientific Interest and it was Englands first statutory Marine Nature reserve, and the first Marine Conservation Zone, because of its unique flora and fauna. It is managed by the Landmark Trust on behalf of the National Trust.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The name Lundy is believed to come from the old Norse word for "puffin island" (compare Lundey), lundi being the Old Norse word for a puffin and ey, an island, although an alternative explanation has been suggested with Lund referring to a copse, or wooded area.</p><br>
<p>Lundy has evidence of visitation or occupation from the Neolithic period onward, with Mesolithic flintwork, Bronze Age burial mounds, four inscribed gravestones from the early medieval period, and an early medieval monastery (possibly dedicated to St Elen or St Helen).</p><br>
<h3>Beacon Hill Cemetery</h3><br>
<p>Beacon Hill Cemetery was excavated by Charles Thomas in 1969. The cemetery contains four inscribed stones, dated to the 5th or 6th century AD. The site was originally enclosed by a curvilinear bank and ditch, which is still visible in the south west corner. However, the other walls were moved when the Old Light was constructed in 1819. Celtic Christian enclosures of this type were common in Western Britain and are known as Llans in Welsh and Lanns in Cornish. There are surviving examples in Luxulyan, in Cornwall; Mathry, Meidrim and Clydau in Wales; and Stowford, Jacobstowe, Lydford and Instow, in Devon.</p><br>
<p>Thomas proposed a five-stage sequence of site usage:</p><br>
<p>(1) An area of round huts and fields. These huts may have fallen into disuse before the construction of the cemetery.</p><br>
<p>(2) The construction of the focal grave, an 11 by rectangular stone enclosure containing a single cist grave. The interior of the enclosure was filled with small granite pieces. Two more cist graves located to the west of the enclosure may also date from this time.</p><br>
<p>(3) Perhaps 100 years later, the focal grave was opened and the infill removed. The body may have been moved to a church at this time.</p><br>
<p>(4) & (5) Two further stages of cist grave construction around the focal grave.</p><br>
<p>23 cist graves were found during this excavation. Considering that the excavation only uncovered a small area of the cemetery, there may be as many as 100 graves.</p><br>
<h4>Inscribed stones</h4><br>
<p>Four Celtic inscribed stones have been found in Beacon Hill Cemetery:</p><br>
<p>1400 OPTIMI, the name Optimus is Latin and male. Discovered in 1962 by D. B. Hague.</p><br>
<p>1401 RESTEVTAE, or RESGEVT, Latin, female i.e. Resteuta or Resgeuta. Discovered in 1962 by D. B. Hague.</p><br>
<p>1402 POTIT, or TIT, Latin, male. Discovered in 1961 by K. S. Gardener and A. Langham.</p><br>
<p>1403 --IGERNI I TIGERNI, or—IGERNI IERNI, Brittonic, male i.e. Tigernus son of Tigernus. Discovered in 1905.</p><br>
<h3>Knights Templar</h3><br>
<p>Lundy was granted to the Knights Templar by Henry II in 1160. The Templars were a major international maritime force at this time, with interests in North Devon, and almost certainly an important port at Bideford or on the River Taw in Barnstaple. This was probably because of the increasing threat posed by the Norse sea raiders; however, it is unclear whether they ever took possession of the island. Ownership was disputed by the Marisco family who may have already been on the island during King Stephens reign. The Mariscos were fined, and the island was cut off from necessary supplies. Evidence of the Templars weak hold on the island came when King John, on his accession in 1199, confirmed the earlier grant.</p><br>
<h3>Marisco family</h3><br>
<p>In 1235 William de Marisco was implicated in the murder of Henry Clement, a messenger of Henry III. Three years later, an attempt was made to kill Henry III by a man who later confessed to being an agent of the Marisco family. William de Marisco fled to Lundy where he lived as a virtual king. He built a stronghold in the area now known as Bulls Paradise with 9 ft thick walls. In 1242, Henry III sent troops to the island. They scaled the islands cliff and captured William de Marisco and 16 of his "subjects". Henry III built the castle (sometimes referred to as the Marisco Castle) in an attempt to establish the rule of law on the island and its surrounding waters. At some point in the 13th century the monks of the Cistercian order at Cleeve Abbey held the rectory of the island.</p><br>
<h3>Piracy</h3><br>
<p>Over the next few centuries, the island was hard to govern. Trouble followed as both English and foreign pirates and privateers – including other members of the Marisco family – took control of the island for short periods. Ships were forced to navigate close to Lundy because of the dangerous shingle banks in the fast flowing River Severn and Bristol Channel, with its tidal range of 27 ft,</p><br>
<p>one of the greatest in the world. This made the island a profitable location from which to prey on passing Bristol-bound merchant ships bringing back valuable goods from overseas.</p><br>
<p>In 1627 Barbary Pirates from the Republic of Salé occupied Lundy for five years. The North African invaders, under the command of Dutch renegade Jan Janszoon, flew an Ottoman flag over the island. Some captured Europeans were held on Lundy before being sent to Algiers as slaves. From 1628 to 1634 the island was plagued by pirate ships of French, Basque, English and Spanish origin. These incursions were eventually ended by Sir John Penington, but in the 1660s and as late as the 1700s the island still fell prey to French privateers.</p><br>
<h3>Civil war</h3><br>
<p>In the English Civil War, Thomas Bushell held Lundy for King Charles I, rebuilding Marisco Castle and garrisoning the island at his own expense. He was a friend of Francis Bacon, a strong supporter of the Royalist cause and an expert on mining and coining. It was the last Royalist territory held between the first and second civil wars. After receiving permission from Charles I, Bushell surrendered the island on 24 February 1647 to Richard Fiennes, representing General Fairfax. In 1656, the island was acquired by Lord Saye and Sele.</p><br>
<h3>18th and 19th centuries</h3><br>
<p>The late 18th and early 19th centuries were years of lawlessness on Lundy, particularly during the ownership of Thomas Benson (1708-1772), a Member of Parliament for Barnstaple in 1747 and Sheriff of Devon, who notoriously used the island for housing convicts whom he was supposed to be deporting. Benson leased Lundy from its owner, John Leveson-Gower, 1st Earl Gower (1694–1754) (who was an heir of the Grenville family of Bideford and of Stowe, Kilkhampton in Cornwall), at a rent of £60 per annum and contracted with the Government to transport a shipload of convicts to Virginia, but diverted the ship to Lundy to use the convicts as his personal slaves. Later Benson was involved in an insurance swindle. He purchased and insured the ship Nightingale and loaded it with a valuable cargo of pewter and linen. Having cleared the port on the mainland, the ship put into Lundy, where the cargo was removed and stored in a cave built by the convicts, before setting sail again. Some days afterwards, when a homeward-bound vessel was sighted, the Nightingale was set on fire and scuttled. The crew were taken off the stricken ship by the other ship, which landed them safely at Clovelly.</p><br>
<p>Sir Vere Hunt, 1st Baronet of Curragh, a rather eccentric Irish politician and landowner, and unsuccessful man of business, purchased the island from John Cleveland in 1802 for £5,270 (£ today). Sir Vere Hunt planted in the island a small, self-contained Irish colony with its</p><br>
<p>own constitution and divorce laws, coinage and stamps. The tenants came from Sir Vere Hunts Irish estate and they experienced agricultural difficulties while on the island. This led Sir Vere Hunt to seek someone who would take the island off his hands, failing in his attempt to sell the island to the British Government as a base for troops. After the 1st Baronets death his son, Sir Aubrey (Hunt) de Vere, 2nd Baronet, also had great difficulty in securing any profit from the property. In the 1820s John Benison agreed to purchase the island for £4,500 but then refused to complete sale as he felt that the 2nd Baronet could not make out a good title in respect of the sale terms, namely that the island was free from tithes and taxes.</p><br>
<p>William Hudson Heaven purchased Lundy in 1834, as a summer retreat and for the shooting, at a cost of 9,400 guineas (£9,870, or £ today). He claimed it to be a "free island", and successfully resisted the jurisdiction of the mainland magistrates. Lundy was in consequence sometimes referred to as "the kingdom of Heaven". It belongs in fact to the county of Devon, and has always been part of the hundred of Braunton. Many of the buildings on the island today, including St. Helenas Church, designed by the architect John Norton, and Millcombe House (originally known simply as the Villa), date from the Heaven period. The Georgian-style villa was built in 1836. However, the expense of building the road from the beach (no financial assistance being provided by Trinity House, despite their regular use of the road following the construction of the lighthouses), the villa and the general cost of running the island had a ruinous effect on the familys finances, which had been damaged by reduced profits from their sugar plantations in Jamaica.</p><br>
<p>In 1957 a message in a bottle from one of the seamen of the HMS Caledonia was washed ashore between Babbacombe and Peppercombe in Devon. The letter, dated 15 August 1843 read: "Dear Brother, Please e God i be with y against Michaelmas. Prepare y search Lundy for y Jenny ivories. Adiue William, Odessa". The bottle and letter are on display at the Portledge Hotel at Fairy Cross, in Devon, England. The Jenny was a three-masted schooner reputed to be carrying ivory and gold dust that was wrecked on Lundy (at a place thereafter called Jenny&#39;s Cove) on 20 February 1797. The ivory was apparently recovered some years later but the leather bags supposed to contain gold dust were never found.</p><br>
<h3>20th and 21st centuries</h3><br>
<p>William Heaven was succeeded by his son the Reverend Hudson Grosset Heaven who, thanks to a legacy from Sarah Langworthy (née Heaven), was able to fulfill his lifes ambition of building a stone church on the island. St Helens was completed in 1896, and stands today as a lasting memorial to the Heaven period. It has been designated by English Heritage a Grade II listed building. He is said to have been able to afford either a church or a new harbour. His choice of the church was not however in the best financial interests of the island. The unavailability of the money for re-establishing the family&#39;s financial soundness, coupled with disastrous investment and speculation in the early 20th century, caused severe financial hardship.</p><br>
<p>Hudson Heaven died in 1916, and was succeeded by his nephew, Walter Charles Hudson Heaven. With the outbreak of the First World War, matters deteriorated seriously, and in 1918 the family sold Lundy to Augustus Langham Christie. In 1924, the Christie family sold the island along with the mail contract and the MV Lerina to Martin Coles Harman, who proclaimed himself a king. Harman issued two coins of Half Puffin and One Puffin denominations in 1929, nominally equivalent to the British halfpenny and penny, resulting in his prosecution under the United Kingdoms Coinage Act of 1870. The House of Lords found him guilty in 1931, and he was fined £5 with fifteen guineas (£5 + £15.75) expenses. The coins were withdrawn and became collectors items. In 1965 a "fantasy" restrike four-coin set, a few in gold, was issued to commemorate 40 years since Harman purchased the island. Harman&#39;s son, John Pennington Harman was awarded a posthumous Victoria Cross during the Battle of Kohima, India in 1944. There is a memorial to him at the VC Quarry on Lundy. Martin Coles Harman died in 1954.</p><br>
<p>Residents did not pay taxes to the United Kingdom and had to pass through customs when they travelled to and from Lundy Island. Although the island was ruled as a virtual fiefdom, its owner never claimed to be independent of the United Kingdom, in contrast to later territorial "micronations".</p><br>
<p>Following the death of Harman&#39;s son Albion in 1968, Lundy was put up for sale in 1969. Jack Hayward, a British millionaire, purchased the island for £150,000 (£ today) and gave it to the National Trust,</p><br>
<p>The island is visited by over 20,000 day-trippers a year, but during September 2007 had to be closed for several weeks owing to an outbreak of Norovirus.</p><br>
<h4>Wreck of Battleship Montagu</h4><br>
<p>A naval footnote in the history of Lundy was the wreck of the Royal Navy battleship HMS Montagu. Steaming in heavy fog, she ran hard aground near Shutter Rock on the islands southwest corner at about 2:00 a.m. on 30 May 1906. Thinking they were aground at Hartland Point on the English mainland, a landing party went ashore for help, only finding out where they were after encountering the lighthouse keeper at the islands north light.</p><br>
<h4>Remains of a German Heinkel 111H bomber</h4><br>
<p>During the Second World War two German Heinkel He 111 bombers crash landed on the island in 1941. The first was on 3 March, when all the crew survived and were taken prisoner. The second was on 1 April when the pilot was killed and the other crew members were taken prisoner. The second plane had bombed a British ship and one engine was damaged by anti aircraft fire, forcing it to crash land. A few remains can be found on the crash site. Reportedly to avoid reprisals the crew concocted a story that they were on a reconnaissance mission.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The island of Lundy is 5 km long from north to south by a little over 1 km wide, with an area of 1,100 acre. A few yards off the northeastern coast is Seal&#39;s Rock which is so called after the seals which rest on and inhabit the islet. It is less than 55 yd wide. Near the jetty is a small pocket beach.</p><br>
<h3>Geology</h3><br>
<p>The island is primarily composed of granite of 59.8 ± 0.4 – 58.4 ± 0.4 million years (from the Palaeocene epoch), with slate at the southern end; the plateau soil is mainly loam, with some peat. Among the igneous dykes cutting the granite are a small number composed of a unique orthophyre. This was given the name Lundyite in 1914, although the term – never precisely defined – has since fallen into disuse.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>Lundy island lies on the borderline where the North Atlantic Ocean and the Bristol Channel meet, so it has quite a mild climate. Lundy has cool, wet winters and mild, wet summers. It is often windy. Fog is a continual experience. The record high temperature is 28.8°C (83.8°F) on 2 August 1990, and the record low temperature is -4.5°C (23.9°F) recorded just six months later on 7 February 1991.</p><br>
<p>Lundy Island is in the USDA 9a plant hardiness zone.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<h3>Flora</h3><br>
<p>There is one endemic plant species, the Lundy cabbage (Coincya wrightii), a species of primitive brassica.</p><br>
<p>By the 1980s the eastern side of the island had become overgrown by rhododendrons (Rhododendron ponticum) which had spread from a few specimens planted in the garden of Millcombe House in Victorian times, but eradication of this non-native plant has been undertaken by volunteers over the past fifteen years in an operation known on the island as "rhody-bashing". The vegetation on the plateau is mainly dry heath, with an area of waved Calluna heath towards the northern end of the island, which is also rich in lichens, such as Teloschistes flavicans and several species of Cladonia and Parmelia. Other areas are either a dry heath/acidic grassland mosaic, characterised by heaths and western gorse (Ulex gallii), or semi-improved acidic grassland in which Yorkshire fog (Holcus lanatus) is abundant. Tussocky (Thrift) (Holcus/Armeria) communities occur mainly on the western side, and some patches of bracken (Pteridium aquilinum) on the eastern side.</p><br>
<h3>Fauna</h3><br>
<h4>Terrestrial invertebrates</h4><br>
<p>Two invertebrate taxa are endemic to Lundy, with both feeding on the endemic Lundy cabbage (Coincya wrightii). These are the Lundy cabbage flea beetle (Psylliodes luridipennis), a species of leaf beetle (family Chrysomelidae) and the Lundy cabbage weevil (Ceutorhynchus contractus var. pallipes), a variety of true weevil (family Curculionidae). Another resident invertebrate of note is Atypus affinis, the only British species of purseweb spider.</p><br>
<h4>Birds</h4><br>
<p>The number of puffins (Fratercula arctica), which may have given the island its name, declined in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, with the 2005 breeding population estimated to be only two or three pairs, as a consequence of depredations by brown and black rats (Rattus rattus) (which have now been eliminated) and possibly also as a result of commercial fishing for sand eels, the puffins&#39; principal prey. Since 2005, the breeding numbers have been slowly increasing. Adults were seen taking fish into four burrows in 2007, and six burrows in 2008.</p><br>
<p>As an isolated island on major migration routes, Lundy has a rich bird life and is a popular site for birdwatching. Large numbers of black-legged kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla) nest on the cliffs, as do razorbill (Alca torda), guillemot (Uria aalge), herring gull (Larus argentatus), lesser black-backed gull (Larus fuscus), fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis), shag (Phalacrocorax aristotelis), oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus), skylark (Alauda arvensis), meadow pipit (Anthus pratensis), common blackbird (Turdus merula), robin (Erithacus rubecula) and linnet (Carduelis cannabina). There are also smaller populations of peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) and raven (Corvus corax).</p><br>
<p>Lundy has attracted many vagrant birds, in particular species from North America. The islands bird list totals 317 species. This has included the following species, each of which represents the sole British record: Ancient murrelet, eastern phoebe and eastern towhee. Records of bimaculated lark, American robin and common yellowthroat were also firsts for Britain (American robin has also occurred two further times on Lundy). Veerys in 1987 and 1997 were Britains second and fourth records, a Rüppells warbler in 1979 was Britains second, an eastern Bonellis warbler in 2004 was Britains fourth, and a black-faced bunting in 2001 Britain&#39;s third.</p><br>
<p>Other British Birds rarities that have been sighted (single records unless otherwise indicated) are: Little bittern, glossy ibis, gyrfalcon (3 records), little and Baillons crakes, collared pratincole, semipalmated (5 records), least (2 records), white-rumped and Bairds (2 records) sandpipers, Wilsons phalarope, laughing gull, bridled tern, Pallass sandgrouse, great spotted, black-billed and yellow-billed (3 records) cuckoos, European roller, olive-backed pipit, citrine wagtail, Alpine accentor, thrush nightingale, red-flanked bluetail, black-eared (2 records) and desert wheatears, Whites, Swainsons (3 records), and grey-cheeked (2 records) thrushes, Sardinian (2 records), Arctic (3 records), Raddes and western Bonellis warblers, Isabelline and lesser grey shrikes, red-eyed vireo (7 records), two-barred crossbill, yellow-rumped and blackpoll warblers, yellow-breasted (2 records) and black-headed (3 records) buntings, rose-breasted grosbeak (2 records), bobolink and Baltimore oriole (2 records).</p><br>
<h4>Mammals</h4><br>
<p>Lundy is home to an unusual range of mammals, almost all introduced, including a distinct breed of wild pony, the Lundy pony. Until recently, Lundy and the Shiant Isles in the Hebrides were the only two places in the UK where the black rat (Rattus rattus) could be found regularly. In the rest of the United Kingdom they have largely been replaced by brown rats except for occasional sightings in port towns and the Thames Estuary. It has since been eradicated on the island, in order to protect the nesting seabirds. Other species which have made the island their home include the grey seal (Halichoerus grypus), Sika deer (Cervus nippon), pygmy shrew (Sorex minutus) and feral goats (Capra aegagrus hircus). Unusually, 20% of the rabbits (Leporidae) on the island are melanistic compared with 4% which is typical in the UK. In mid-2006 the rabbit population was devastated by myxomatosis, leaving only 60 pairs from the previous 15–20,000 individuals. Soay sheep (Ovis aries) on the island have been shown to vary their behaviours according to nutritional requirements, the distribution of food and the risk of predation.</p><br>
<h4>Marine habitat</h4><br>
<p>In 1971 a proposal was made by the Lundy Field Society to establish a marine reserve, and the survey was led by Dr Keith Hiscock, supported by a team of students from Bangor University. Provision for the establishment of statutory Marine Nature Reserves was included in the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981, and on 21 November 1986 the Secretary of State for the Environment announced the designation of a statutory reserve at Lundy.</p><br>
<p>There is an outstanding variety of marine habitats and wildlife, and a large number of rare and unusual species in the waters around Lundy, including some species of seaweed, branching sponges, sea fans and cup corals.</p><br>
<p>In 2003 the first statutory No Take Zone (NTZ) for marine nature conservation in the UK was set up in the waters to the east of Lundy island. In 2008 this was declared as having been successful in several ways including the increasing size and number of lobsters within the reserve, and potential benefits for other marine wildlife. However, the no take zone has received a mixed reaction from local fishermen.</p><br>
<p>On 12 January 2010 the island became Britain&#39;s first Marine Conservation Zone designated under the Marine and Coastal Access Act 2009, designed to help to preserve important habitats and species.</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<h3>To the island</h3><br>
<p>There are two ways to get to Lundy, depending on the time of year. In the summer months (April to October) visitors are carried on the Landmark Trust&#39;s own vessel, MS Oldenburg, which sails from both Bideford and Ilfracombe. Sailings are usually three days a week, on Tuesdays, Thursdays and Saturdays, with additional sailings on Wednesdays during July and August. The voyage takes on average two hours, depending on ports, tides and weather. The Oldenburg was first registered in Bremen, Germany in 1958 and has been sailing to Lundy since her engine was replaced in 1985.</p><br>
<p>In the winter months (November to March), the Oldenburg is out of service, and the island is served by a scheduled helicopter service from Hartland Point. The helicopter operates on Mondays and Fridays, with flights between 12 noon and 2 pm. The heliport is a field at the top of Hartland Point, not far from the Beacon.</p><br>
<p>A grass runway of 435 by is available, allowing access to small STOL aircraft skilfully piloted.</p><br>
<p>Properly equipped and experienced canoeists can kayak to the island from Hartland Point or Lee Bay. This takes 4 to 6 hours depending on wind and tides.</p><br>
<p>Entrance to Lundy is free for anyone arriving by scheduled transport. Visitors arriving by non-scheduled transport are charged an entrance fee, currently (May 2016) £6.00, and there is an additional charge payable by those using light aircraft. Anyone arriving on Lundy by non-scheduled transport is also charged an additional fee for transporting luggage to the top of the island.</p><br>
<h3>On the island</h3><br>
<p>In 2007, Derek Green, Lundy&#39;s general manager, launched an appeal to raise £250,000 to save the mile-long Beach Road, which had been damaged by heavy rain and high seas. The road was built in the first half of the 19th century to provide people and goods with safe access to the top of the island, 120 m above the only jetty. The fund-raising was completed on 10 March 2009.</p><br>
<h3>Lighthouses</h3><br>
<p>Foundations for a lighthouse on Lundy were laid in 1787, but the first lighthouse (now known as the Old Light) was not built until Trinity House obtained a 999-year lease in 1819. The 97 ft granite tower, on the summit of Chapel Hill, was designed by Daniel Asher Alexander, and built by Joseph Nelson at a cost of £36,000. Because the site, Beacon Hill, is 469 ft above sea level, the highest base for a lighthouse in Britain, the light was often obscured by fog. To counter this problem, the Fog Signal Battery was built about 1861.</p><br>
<p>The lighthouse had two lights; the lower a fixed white light and the upper a quick flashing white light, showing every 60 seconds. However, this quick revolution gave the impression it was a fixed light with no flashes detectable. This may have contributed to the grounding, at Cefn Sidan, of the La Jeune Emma, bound from Martinique to Cherbourg in 1828. 13 of the 19 on board drowned, including Adeline Coquelin, the 12-year-old niece of Napoleon Bonaparte&#39;s divorced wife Joséphine de Beauharnais.</p><br>
<p>Owing to the ongoing complaints about the difficulty of sighting the light in fog, the lighthouse was abandoned in 1897 when the North and South Lundy lighthouses were built. The Old Light and the associated keepers&#39; houses are kept open by the Landmark Trust.</p><br>
<p>The current North Lundy and South Lundy lighthouses were built in 1897 at the extremities of the island to replace the old lighthouse. Both lighthouses are painted white and are run and maintained by Trinity House.</p><br>
<p>The North lighthouse is 56 ft tall, slightly taller than the south one, and has a focal plane of 157 ft. It produces a quick white flash every 15 seconds, and was originally lit by a 75 mm petroleum vapour burner. Oil was lifted up from a small quay using a sled and winch, and then transported using a small railway (again winch-powered). The remains of this can be still seen, but it was abandoned in 1971 and the lighthouse now uses a discharge bulb fed from the island&#39;s main supply. The northern light was modernised in 1991 and converted to solar power, since when the light has been mounted on top of the old fog horn building rather than in the tower.</p><br>
<p>The South lighthouse has a focal length of 174 ft and a quick white flash every 5 seconds. It can be seen as a small white dot from Hartland Point, 11 miles to the south east. It was automated and converted to solar power in 1994. The old fresnel lens has been in use since 2001 in Dungeness Lighthouse.</p><br>
<h2>Electricity supply</h2><br>
<p>There is a small power station comprising three Cummins B and C series diesel engines, offering an approx 150 kVa 3 phase supply to most of the island buildings. Waste heat from the engine jackets is used for a district heating pipe. There are also plans to collect the waste heat from the engine exhaust heat gases to feed into the district heat network to improve the efficiency further. The Power is normally switched off between 0000 and 0630.</p><br>
<h2>Staying on the island</h2><br>
<p>Lundy has 23 holiday properties, sleeping between one and 14 people. These include a lighthouse, a castle and a Victorian mansion. Many of the buildings are constructed from the island&#39;s granite.</p><br>
<p>The island also has a campsite, at the south of the island in the field next to the shop. It has hot and cold running water, with showers and toilets, in an adjacent building.</p><br>
<p>The island is popular with rock climbers, having the UKs longest continuous slab climb, "The Devils Slide".</p><br>
<h2>Administration</h2><br>
<p>The island is an unparished area of Torridge district of the English county of Devon. It forms part of the ward of Clovelly Bay. It is part of the constituency electing the Member of Parliament for Torridge and West Devon and the South West England constituency for the European Parliament.</p><br>
<h3>Stamps</h3><br>
<p>Owing to a decline in population and lack of interest in the mail contract, the GPO ended its presence on Lundy at the end of 1927. For the next two years Harman handled the mail to and from the island without charge. On 1 November 1929, he decided to offset the expense by issuing two postage stamps (½ puffin in pink and 1 puffin in blue). One puffin is equivalent to one English penny. The printing of Puffin stamps continues to this day and they are available at face value from the Lundy Post Office. One used to have to stick Lundy stamps on the back of the envelope; but Royal Mail now allows their use on the front of the envelope, but placed on the left side, with the right side reserved for the Royal Mail postage stamp or stamps. Lundy stamps are cancelled by a circular Lundy handstamp. The face value of the Lundy Island stamps covers the cost of postage of letters and postcards from the island to the Bideford Post Office on the mainland for onward delivery to their final destination anywhere in the world. The Lundy Post Office gets a bulk rate discount for mailing letters and postcards from Bideford. Lundy stamps are a type of postage stamp known to philatelists as "local carriage labels" or "local stamps". Issues of increasing value were made over the years, including air mail, featuring a variety of people. Many are now highly sought-after by collectors. The market value of the early issues has risen substantially over the years. For the many thousands of annual visitors Lundy stamps have become part of the collection of the many British Local Posts collectors. The first catalogues of these stamps included Gerald Rosens 1970 Catalogue of British Local Stamps. Later specialist catalogues include Stamps of Lundy Island by Stanley Newman, first published in 1984, Phillips Modern British Locals CD Catalogue, published since 2003, and Labbes Specialised Guide to Lundy Island Stamps, published since 2005 and now in its 11th Edition. Labbe&#39;s Guide is considered the gold standard of Lundy catalogues owing to its extensive approach to varieties, errors, specialised items and "fantasy" issues. There is a comprehensive collection of these stamps in the Chinchen Collection, donated by Barry Chinchen to the British Library Philatelic Collections in 1977 and now held by the British Library. This is also the home of the Landmark Trust Lundy Island Philatelic Archive which includes artwork, texts and essays as well as postmarking devices and issued stamps.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>A ship named Lundy Island, 3,095 tons, was captured and sunk on 10 January 1917 by the Seeadler, a windjammer under the German navy, but flying the Norwegian flag.</p><br>
<p>Lundy island is prominently featured in John Bellairs&#39; juvenile gothic mystery, The Secret of the Underground Room. The plot highlights several geographical and historical points of interest, including the (De) Marisco family. The book was first published in 1990.</p><br>
<p>Lundy features in the 1919 novel Last of the Grenvilles by Frederick Harcourt Kitchin (under his pseudonym, Bennett Copplestone)</p><br>
<p>Mount Lykaion  is a mountain in Arcadia, Greece. Lykaion has two peaks: Stefani to the north and St. Ilias  to the south where the altar of Zeus is located.</p><br>
<p>The northern peak is higher, 1,421 m, than the southern, 1,382 m (abbr=on 1,421). Mount Lykaion was sacred to Zeus Lykaios, who was said to have been born and brought up on it, and was the home of Pelasgus and his son Lycaon, who were said to have founded the ritual of Zeus practiced on its summit. This seems to have involved a human sacrifice and a feast in which the man who received the portion of a human victim was changed to a wolf, as Lycaon had been after sacrificing a child. The altar of Zeus consists of a great mound of ashes with a retaining wall. It was said that no shadows fell within the precincts and that any who entered it died within the year. The sanctuary of Zeus played host to athletic games held every four years, the Lykaia.</p><br>
<p>Archaeological excavations were first carried out in 1897 by K. Kontopoulos for the Greek Archaeological Service, followed by K. Kourouniotes between 1902 and 1909.</p><br>
<p>The Mt. Lykaion Excavation and Survey Project, a joint effort of the University of Pennsylvania and the University of Arizona began work at the site in 2004, with the aim of continuing the topographical survey begun in 1996 and carrying out a full topographical and architectural analysis not only of the altar and temenos, but of the nearby valley where the Lykaian Games were held. The detailed digital records and drawings of every architectural stone block. To date, a complete map of the area has been made, including not only the Ash Altar and temenos, but also two fountains, including the Hagno fountain mentioned by Pausanias, the hippodrome, the stadium, a building that was probably a bathhouse, the xenon (hotel), a stoa, several rows of seats, and a group of statue bases.</p><br>
<p>Many of these buildings seem to have been planned in relation to each other: the baths at the northern end of the hippodrome are on the same alignment as it is, and the stoa, the xenon, the lower fountain, and the rows of seats all appear to have been built in an intentionally similar alignment. Just to the north of the stoa four rows of seats were excavated, with the remains of a group of stelae and statue bases nearby. These would have bordered the hippodrome&#39;s southern edge, and correspond to an earlier excavated row of seats on the south-eastern edge of the racetrack. The majority of the spectators of events in the hippodrome, however, would have sat on the surrounding hills.</p><br>
<h2>In the literary record</h2><br>
<p>Mt. Lykaion, its religious significance, and its quadrennial athletic games appear with some frequency in the ancient literary sources. The 2nd-century Greek geographer Pausanias provides the greatest amount of information in the eighth book of his Description of Greece, where he discusses Lykaion’s mythological, historical, and physical characteristics in detail. More isolated references occur, however, in sources ranging from Plato to Virgil.</p><br>
<h3>Legendary period</h3><br>
<p>Pausanias states that the Arcadians claimed Cretea atop Mt. Lykaion as the birthplace of Zeus, although tradition had handed down at least two other locations for Zeus’ birth.</p><br>
<p>Lycaon, son of Pelasgus, the mythical founder of the Greek race, is said to have instituted the worship of Zeus at Mt. Lykaion, giving the god the epithet Lykaios and establishing games in his honor. The Bibliotheca, a Roman-era mythological compendium, adds the story that Lycaon attempted to test Zeus’ omniscience by tricking him into eating a sacrifice mixed with human flesh. In punishment, Zeus slew Lycaon and his fifty sons. Other sources, including the Roman poet Ovid, claim instead that Lycaon’s punishment was transformation into a wolf, an early example of lycanthropy.</p><br>
<h3>Historical events</h3><br>
<p>According to Pausanias and the Greek historian Polybius, an inscribed pillar (stele) was erected near the altar of Zeus on Mt. Lykaion during the Second Messenian War, a revolt against the Spartans. The inscription supposedly commemorated the execution of Aristocrates of Arcadia, who had betrayed the Messenian hero Aristomenes at the battle of the Great Trench.</p><br>
<p>Thucydides, a Greek historian of the Peloponnesian War, writes that the Spartan king Pleistoanax lived on Mt. Lykaion while in exile from the mid-440s BC until 427, where he built a house straddling the sacred region (temenos) of Zeus to avoid further persecution.</p><br>
<p>In his Stratagems, the 2nd-century Macedonian rhetorician Polyaenus describes a battle between the Spartans and Demetrius of Macedon in 294 BC. Mt. Lykaion extended between the camps of both sides, causing some consternation among the Macedonians due to their unfamiliarity with the terrain. Nevertheless, Demetrius’ forces won the battle with relative ease.</p><br>
<p>Polybius and Plutarch, a Greek author writing under the Roman empire, cite a battle at Mt. Lykaion in 227 BC between the Achaean League under Aratus and the Spartans under Cleomenes III. Although the details are vague, both authors make it clear that the Achaeans were defeated and that Aratus was killed shortly thereafter.</p><br>
<h3>Religious worship</h3><br>
<h4>Pan</h4><br>
<p>Mt. Lykaion was an important site of religious worship in ancient Greece. Pausanias describes a sanctuary of Pan surrounded by a grove of trees. At the sanctuary were bases of statues, which by Pausanias’ time had been deprived of the statues themselves, as well as a hippodrome, where the athletic games had once been held. References to Lykaian Pan are especially abundant in Latin poetry, as for instance in Virgil’s epic, the Aeneid: “Lupercal / Parrhasio dictum Panos de more Lycaei,” “...the Lupercal, named after the Parrhasian worship of Lykaian Pan,” and in Horace’s Odes: “Velox amoenum saepe Lucretilem / mutat Lycaeo Faunus,” “Often swift Faunus exchanges Lykaion for pleasant Lucretilis.”</p><br>
<h4>Zeus Lykaios</h4><br>
<p>Pausanias records the presence of a mound of earth on the highest point of the mountain, an altar to Zeus Lykaios. He describes two pillars near the altar which had once been topped by golden eagles. Although Pausanias alludes to secret sacrifices which took place on this altar, he explains that he was reluctant to inquire into these rites due to their extreme antiquity. Pausanias also discusses the temenos of Zeus, a sacred precinct which humans were forbidden to enter. He notes the common belief that any person entering the temenos would die within a year, along with the legend that all creatures, human and animal alike, cast no shadow while inside the sacred area.</p><br>
<h4>Games</h4><br>
<p>The athletic competitions at Lykaion, held every four years, receive occasional mention in the literary record. Authors are in disagreement as to when exactly the games were first instituted: Aristotle is said to have ranked the Lykaion games fourth in order of institution after the Eleusinia, the Panathenaia, and the Argive games, while Pausanias argues for the Lykaian competition’s priority to the Panathenaia. Pliny the Elder, an imperial Roman polymath, states that the games at Lykaion were the first to introduce gymnastic competition. The ancient Greek lyric poet Pindar records the victories of several athletes in his Victory Odes, and two inscribed stelae recently excavated from the Lykaian hippodrome provide information about the events, participants, and winners at the games.</p><br>
<h2>Modern study</h2><br>
<p>After 1832, when Greece had gained independence from the Ottoman Empire, European travelers and scholars began to systematically tour Sparta and the Peloponnese. Ernst Curtius, Charles Beulé, and Guillaume Blouet published scholarly studies of the area, and discussions of the region appeared in German and British travelogues as well. Many of these writers used Pausanias as their guide to the geography and sights of the region, but were also concerned to correlate modern Greek place-names with ancient evidence.</p><br>
<p>Beulé described the hippodrome and surrounding area, including large stones that he assumed formed had formed the seats of the judges and magistrates, and the remains of a building he called a temple to Pan, but which probably corresponds to the stoa of the modern excavations. The German writer Ross described the bathhouse and its ancient but still-visible cisterns, which site he noted the locals called the Skaphidia.</p><br>
<p>Ross, L. Reisen im Reiserouten durch Griechenland. 91 ff</p><br>
<p>Mt. Lykaion was initially excavated by the Greek Archaeological Service, first in 1897 by archaeologist K. Kontopoulos and again in 1902 by K. Kourouniotes. Kontopoulos dug several trial trenches near the hippodrome and the altar. Kourouniotes’s excavations of the altar and surrounding area (the temenos) were particularly informative; he learned that the altar consisted of a raised mound of blackened earth as described by Pausanias. In 1909 Kourouniotes excavated an area at the east of the mountain and beneath the summit, the site of the hippodrome, stadium, and bathhouse.</p><br>
<p>Since Kourouniotes’s excavation, anthropologists and scholars of Arcadian religion have studied the site in terms of its development as a sanctuary, but there was no further systematic or scientific investigation until 1996, when Dr. David Gilman Romano of the University of Pennsylvania conducted a topographical and architectural survey of the site. Romano continued his work with the Mt. Lykaion Excavation and Survey Project under the auspices of the University of Pennsylvania and the University of Arizona. A preliminary planning phase of cleaning and surveying took place in 2004 and 2005, and was followed by a five-year excavation program beginning in June 2006. A two-year period during which the findings will be studied is scheduled to begin in the summer of 2011.</p><br>
<h2>Hippodrome</h2><br>
<p>The hippodrome at Mount Lykaion, located in a valley below and to the north of the altar, is the only extant hippodrome from Greek antiquity, and is therefore crucial to our understanding of Greek athletic festivals. The hippodrome was constructed on roughly a north-south orientation with a retaining wall of about 140 meters along the eastern side curving around the northern end. Modern excavations have discovered portions tapering column drums that may belonged to the turning posts at either end of the race-course, from whose location it appears that the hippodrome could have had a length of 320 meters and a width of 140. A bath building is being excavated about 35 meters to the northeast of the hippodrome; a large portion of it appears to have been dedicated to a cistern, and large stone basins from the middle of the structure have been uncovered</p><br>
<p>The Lykaian hippodrome is further unique in apparently having encompassed the stadium racecourse. The early 20th century excavator of Lykaion, Kouriouniotis discovered stone blocks in the middle of the hippodrome that would have formed the starting line of the stadium. The topological survey of 1996 confirmed 6 starting line blocks, four of which were grouped together and were thus possibly found near their original orientation and position. From this, archaeologist David Romano speculated that a stadium racecourse of 170–180 meters would have been enclosed within the hippodrome. The apparently double-use of the space is particularly interesting because inscriptional evidence concerning the Lykaian Games of the 4th century BCE indicates that horse and foot-races were held during the same festivals, and possibly on the same day.</p><br>
<p>Two inscriptions were uncovered in the excavations of Kouriouniotis that give the names of winning athletes in the various contests of the Lykaian Games that were held every four years between 320 and 304 BCE. These contests included footraces for men and for boys, various chariot races with teams of adult and juvenile horses, boxing, wrestling, and a pentathlon.</p><br>
<h3>Ash altar</h3><br>
<p>A circular altar of blackened earth about 1.5 meters in height and 30 meters in diameter seems to date from before the migration of Indo-European peoples into the area. The excavations of Kourouniotes in 1903 of the altar and its nearby temenos determined definite cult activity at the Lykaion altar from the late 7th century b.c.e, including animals bones, miniature tripods, knives, and statuettes of Zeus holding an eagle and a lightning bolt. These objects were primarily found in the temenos. The earth-altar may correspond to a Linear B mention of an "open-fire altar&quot Linear B (14th-13th centuries BCE) inscriptions also give the first mentions of offerings to Zeus and of the sacred precinct (temenos) near the altar, such as has been excavated at Lykaion.</p><br>
<p>Excavation in 2007 revealed pottery fragments and signs of activity in the ash altar believed to have been used as early as 3000 BCE. Nearby Olympia (only 22 miles away) has a similar ash altar, and both settlements held ancient athletic games. The extremely early date of activity at Lykaion could suggest that these customs originated there.</p><br>
<p>Recent excavations of a 30-meter ash altar on Mount Lykaion in Greece, once worshipped as the birthplace of Zeus, have revealed a 3000-year-old skeleton of an adolescent boy thought to be a human sacrifice, The Boston Globe reports. The altar is not a cemetery, the researchers note, and the skeleton was lined with stones, showing that it was not a typical human burial. Plato and other ancient writers linked Mount Lykaion specifically to human sacrifices to Zeus—the legends say a sacrificed boy would be cooked with sacrificed animal meat and those who consumed the human portion would become a wolf for 9 years.</p><br>
<p>Lake Eyre, officially known as Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre, contains the lowest natural point in Australia, at approximately 15 m below sea level , and, on the rare occasions that it fills, is the largest lake in Australia covering 9,500 km&sup2;. The shallow endorheic lake is the depocentre of the vast Lake Eyre basin and is found in Northern South Australia, some 700 km north of Adelaide.</p><br>
<p>When the lake is full, it has the same salinity level as the sea, but as the lake dries up and the water evaporates, salinity increases.</p><br>
<p>The lake was named in honour of Edward John Eyre, who was the first European to see it, in 1840. The lake&#39;s official name was changed in December 2012 to combine the name "Lake Eyre" with the indigenous name, Kati Thanda. The native title over the lake and surrounding region is held by the Arabana people.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre is located in the deserts of central Australia, in northern South Australia. The Lake Eyre Basin is a large endorheic system surrounding the lakebed, the lowest part of which is filled with the characteristic salt pan caused by the seasonal expansion and subsequent evaporation of the trapped waters. Even in the dry season there is usually some water remaining in Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre, normally collecting in over 200 smaller sub-lakes within its margins. The lake was formed by aeolian processes after tectonic upwarping occurred to the south subsequent to the end of the Pleistocene epoch.</p><br>
<p>During the rainy season the rivers from the north-east part of the Lake Eyre Basin (in outback (south-west and central) Queensland) flow towards the lake through the Channel Country. The amount of water from the monsoon determines whether water will reach the lake and if it does, how deep the lake will get. The average rainfall in the area of the lake is 100 to 150 mm per year.</p><br>
<p>The -15 m altitude usually attributed to Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre refers to the deepest parts of the lake floor, in Belt Bay and the Madigan Gulf. The shoreline lies at -9 m. The lake is the area of maximum deposition of sediment in the Lake Eyre Basin.</p><br>
<p>Lake Eyre is divided into two sections which are joined by the Goyder Channel. These are known as Lake Eyre North, which is 144 km in length and 65 km wide, and Lake Eyre South, which measures 65 by. The salt crusts are thickest (up to 50 cm) in the southern Belt Bay, Jackboot Bay and Madigan Gulf sub-basins of Lake Eyre North.</p><br>
<p>Since 1883, proposals have been made to flood Lake Eyre with seawater brought to the basin via a canal or pipeline. The purpose was, in part, to increase evaporation and thereby increase rainfall in the region downwind of an enlarged Lake Eyre. The added rainfall has been modeled as small. Due to the basins low elevation below sea level and the regions high annual evaporation rate (between 2,500 and), such schemes have generally been considered impractical as it is likely that accumulation of salt deposits would rapidly block the engineered channel. At a rate of 1 cm evaporation per day, a 3 m viaduct flowing a 0.5 m/s would supply enough water to create a 100 km&sup2; sea. If brine water was not sent back to the ocean, it would precipitate 90,000 LT of salt every year.</p><br>
<h2>Salinity</h2><br>
<p>The salinity in the lake increases as the 450 mm salt crust dissolves over a period of six months of a major flood resulting in a massive fish kill. When over 4 m deep the lake is no more salty than the sea, but salinity increases as the water evaporates, with saturation occurring at about a 500 mm depth. The lake takes on a pink hue when saturated due to the presence of beta-carotene pigment caused by the algae Dunaliella salina.</p><br>
<h2>Floods</h2><br>
<p>Typically a 1.5 m flood occurs every three years, a 4 m flood every decade, and a fill or near fill a few times a century. The water in the lake soon evaporates with a minor or medium flood drying by the end of the following summer. Most of the water entering the lakes arrives via Warburton River.</p><br>
<p>In strong La Niña years the lake can fill. Since 1885 this has occurred in 1886–1887, 1889–1890, 1916–1917, 1950, 1955, 1974–1977, and 1999–2001, with the highest flood of 6 m in 1974. Local rain can also fill Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre to 3 – as occurred in 1984 and 1989. Torrential rain in January 2007 took about six weeks to reach the lake but only placed a small amount of water into it.</p><br>
<p>When recently flooded the lake is almost fresh and native freshwater fish, including bony bream (Nematolosa erebi), the Lake Eyre Basin sub-species of golden perch (Macquaria ambigua) and various small hardyhead species (Craterocephalus spp.) can survive in it.</p><br>
<h3>2009 to 2011</h3><br>
<p>The 2009 Lake Eyre flood peaked at 1.5 m deep in late May, which is a quarter of its maximum recorded depth of 6 m. 9 km3 of water crossed the Queensland–South Australian border with most of it coming from massive floods in the Georgina River. However, owing to the very low rainfall in the lower reaches of these rivers (contrasting with heavy rainfall in the upper catchments) the greater proportion soaked into the desert or evaporated en route to the lake, leaving less than 4 km3 in the lake which covered an area of 800 km&sup2; or 12% of the total. As the flood did not start filling the lake&#39;s deepest point (Belt Bay) until late March, little bird life appeared preferring instead to nest in the upper reaches of the Lake Eyre Basin, north of Birdsville, where large lakes appeared in January as a result of monsoonal rain.</p><br>
<p>The high rainfall in summer 2010 sent flood water into the Diamantina, Georgina and Cooper Creek catchments of the Lake Eyre basin, with the Cooper Creek reaching the lake for the first time since 1990. The higher rainfall has prompted many different birds to migrate back to the area for breeding.</p><br>
<p>Heavy local rain in early March 2011 in the Stuart Creek and Warriner catchments filled Lake Eyre South, with Lake Eyre North about 75 per cent covered with water firstly from the Neales and Macumba Rivers, and later from the Warburton River.</p><br>
<h3>2015 to 2016</h3><br>
<p>In late 2015, water began flowing into Lake Eyre following heavy rain in the north-east of the state.</p><br>
<h2>Yacht club</h2><br>
<p>The Lake Eyre Yacht Club is a dedicated group of sailors who sail on the lake&#39;s floods, including recent trips in 1997, 2000, 2001, 2004, 2007 and 2009. A number of 6 m trailer sailers sailed on Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre in 1975, 1976, and 1984 when the flood depth reached 3 –. In July 2010 The Yacht Club held its first regatta since 1976 and its first on Lake Killamperpunna, a freshwater lake on Cooper Creek. The Cooper had reached Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre for the first time since 1990.</p><br>
<p>When the lake is full, a notable phenomenon is that around midday the surface can often become very flat. The surface then reflects the sky in a way that leaves both the horizon and water surface virtually impossible to see. The commodore of the Lake Eyre Yacht Club has stated that sailing during this time has the appearance of sailing in the sky.</p><br>
<h2>Land speed record attempts</h2><br>
<p>Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre has been a site for various land speed record attempts on its salt flats, especially those by Donald Campbell with the Bluebird-Proteus CN7.</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife</h2><br>
<p>Phytoplankton in the lake includes Nodularia spumigena and a number of species of Dunaliella.</p><br>
<h3>Birds</h3><br>
<p>Birds such as pelicans and banded stilts are drawn to a filled lake from southern coastal regions of Australia, and from as far afield as Papua New Guinea. During the 1989–1990 flood it was estimated that 200,000 pelicans, 80% of Australia&#39;s total population, came to feed & roost at Lake Eyre. Scientists are presently unable to determine how such birds appear able to detect the filling of the lake, even when hundreds or thousands of miles away from the basin.</p><br>
<h2>Protected area status</h2><br>
<h3>Statutory</h3><br>
<p>The extent of the lake is covered by two protected areas declared by the Government of South Australia - the Kati Thanda-Lake Eyre National Park and the Elliot Price Conservation Park.</p><br>
<h3>Non-statutory</h3><br>
<h4>Wetlands</h4><br>
<p>Lake Eyre is on the list of wetlands of national importance known as A Directory of Important Wetlands in Australia.</p><br>
<h4>Important bird area</h4><br>
<p>Lake Eyre has been identified by BirdLife International as an Important Bird Area (IBA) known as the Lake Eyre Important Bird Area because, when flooded, it supports major breeding events of the Banded stilt and Australian pelican, as well as over 1% of the world populations of Red-necked avocets, Sharp-tailed sandpipers, Red-necked stints, Silver gulls and Caspian terns.</p><br>
<p>Larissa  is the capital and largest city of the Thessaly region, the fifth-most populous in Greece and capital of the Larissa regional unit. It is a principal agricultural centre and a national transport hub, linked by road and rail with the port of Volos, the cities of Thessaloniki and Athens. Larissa, within its municipality, has 162,591 inhabitants, while the regional unit of Larissa reached a population of 284,325 . The urban area of the city, although mostly contained within the Larissa municipality, also includes the communities of Giannouli, Platykampos, Nikaia, Terpsithea and several other suburban settlements, bringing the wider urban area population of the city to about 174,012 inhabitants and extends over an area of 572.3 km&sup2;.</p><br>
<p>Legend has it that Achilles was born here. Hippocrates, the Father of Medicine, died here. Today, Larissa is an important commercial, agricultural and industrial centre of Greece.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>There are a number of highways including E75 and the main railway from Athens to Thessaloniki (Salonika) crossing through Thessaly. The region is directly linked to the rest of Europe through the International Airport of Central Greece located in Nea Anchialos a short distance from Larissa. Larissa lies on the river Pineios.</p><br>
<p>The municipality Larissa has an area of 335.98 km&sup2, the municipal unit Larissa has an area of 122.586 km&sup2, and the community Larissa has an area of 88.167 km&sup2;.</p><br>
<p>The Larissa Chasma, a deep gash in the surface of Dione, a natural satellite of Saturn, was named after Larissa.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The climate of Larissa is transitional. The winter is cold and wet, and some snowstorms may occur. The summer is hot, and temperatures of 40 &deg;C may occur. Thunderstorms or heavy rain may cause agricultural damage. Larissa receives 450 mm of rain per year.</p><br>
<h2>Mythology</h2><br>
<p>According to Greek mythology it is said that the city was founded by Acrisius, who was killed accidentally by his grandson, Perseus. There lived Peleus, the hero beloved by the gods, and his son Achilles.</p><br>
<p>In mythology, the nymph Larissa was a daughter of the primordial man Pelasgus.</p><br>
<p>The city of Larissa is mentioned in Book II of Iliad by Homer:</p><br>
<p>Hippothous led the tribes of Pelasgian spearsmen, who dwelt in fertile Larissa- Hippothous,and Pylaeus of the race of Mars, two sons of the Pelasgian Lethus, son of Teutamus.</p><br>
<p>In this paragraph, Homer shows that the Pelasgians, Trojan allies, used to live in the city of Larissa. It is likely that this city of Larissa was different to the city that was the birthplace of Achilles. The Larissa that features as a Trojan ally in the Iliad was likely to be located in the Troad, on the other side of the Aegean Sea.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Antiquity</h3><br>
<p>Traces of Paleolithic human settlement have been recovered from the area, but it was peripheral to areas of advanced culture. The area around Larissa was extremely fruitful; it was agriculturally important and in antiquity was known for its horses.</p><br>
<p>The name Larissa (Λάρισα Lárīsa) is in origin a Pelasgian (pre-Greek) word for "fortress". There were many ancient Greek cities with this name.</p><br>
<p>The name of Thessalian Larissa is first recorded in connection with the aristocratic Aleuadai family.</p><br>
<p>Larissa is thought to be where the famous Greek physician Hippocrates and the famous philosopher Gorgias of Leontini died.</p><br>
<p>When Larissa ceased minting the federal coins it shared with other Thessalian towns and adopted its own coinage in the late 5th century BC, it chose local types for its coins. The obverse depicted the nymph of the local spring, Larissa, for whom the town was named; probably the choice was inspired by the famous coins of Kimon depicting the Syracusan nymph Arethusa. The reverse depicted a horse in various poses. The horse was an appropriate symbol of Thessaly, a land of plains, which was well known for its horses. Usually there is a male figure; he should perhaps be seen as the eponymous hero of the Thessalians, Thessalos, who is probably also to be identified on many of the earlier, federal coins of Thessaly.</p><br>
<p>Larissa, sometimes written Larisa on ancient coins and inscriptions, is near the site of the Homeric Argissa. It appears in early times, when Thessaly was mainly governed by a few aristocratic families, as an important city under the rule of the Aleuadae, whose authority extended over the whole district of Pelasgiotis. This powerful family possessed for many generations before 369 BC the privilege of furnishing the tagus, the local term for the strategos of the combined Thessalian forces. The principal rivals of the Aleuadae were the Scopadae of Crannon, the remains of which are about 14 miles south west.</p><br>
<p>Larissa was indeed the birthplace of Meno, who thus became, along with Xenophon and a few others, one of the generals leading several thousands Greeks from various places, in the ill-fated expedition of 401 (retold in Xenophons Anabasis) meant to help Cyrus the Younger, son of Darius II, king of Persia, overthrow his elder brother Artaxerxes II and take over the throne of Persia (Meno is featured in Platos dialogue bearing his name, in which Socrates uses the example of "the way to Larissa" to help explain Meno the difference between true opinion and science (Meno, 97a–c); this "way to Larissa" might well be on the part of Socrates an attempt to call to Menos mind a "way home", understood as the way toward ones true and "eternal" home reached only at death, that each man is supposed to seek in his life).</p><br>
<p>The constitution of the town was democratic, which explains why it sided with Athens in the Peloponnesian War. In the neighbourhood of Larissa was celebrated a festival which recalled the Roman Saturnalia, and at which the slaves were waited on by their masters. As the chief city of ancient Thessaly, Larissa was taken by the Thebans and later directly annexed by Philip II of Macedon in 344. It remained under Macedonian control afterwards, except for a brief period when Demetrius Poliorcetes captured it in 302 BC.</p><br>
<p>It was in Larissa that Philip V of Macedon signed in 197 BC a treaty with the Romans after his defeat at the Battle of Cynoscephalae, and it was there also that Antiochus III the Great, won a great victory in 192 BC. In 196 BC Larissa became an ally of Rome and was the headquarters of the Thessalian League.</p><br>
<p>Larissa is frequently mentioned in connection with the Roman civil wars which preceded the establishment of the Roman Empire and Pompey sought refuge there after the defeat of Pharsalus.</p><br>
<h3>Middle Ages and Ottoman period</h3><br>
<p>Larissa was sacked by the Ostrogoths in the late 5th century, and rebuilt under the Byzantine emperor Justinian I.</p><br>
<p>In the 8th century, the city became the metropolis of the theme of Hellas. The city was captured in 986 by Tsar Samuel of Bulgaria, who carried off the relics of its patron saint, Saint Achilleios, to Prespa. It was again unsuccessfully besieged by the Italo-Normans under Bohemond I in 1082/3.</p><br>
<p>After the Fourth Crusade, the King of Thessalonica, Boniface of Montferrat, gave the city to Lombard barons, but they launched a rebellion in 1209 that had to be subdued by the Latin Emperor Henry of Flanders himself. The city was recovered by Epirus soon after.</p><br>
<p>It was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1386/87 and again in the 1390s, but only came under permanent Ottoman control in 1423, by Turahan Bey. Under Ottoman rule, the city was known as Yeni-şehir i-Fenari, "new citadel". As the chief town and military base of Ottoman Thessaly, Larissa was a predominantly Muslim city. During Ottoman rule the administration of the Metropolis of Larissa was transferred to nearby Trikala where it remained until 1734, when Metropolitan Iakovos II returned the see from Trikala to Larisa and established the present-day metropolis of Larissa and Tyrnavos.</p><br>
<p>The town was noted for its trade fair in the 17th and 18th centuries, while the seat of the pasha of Thessaly was also transferred there in 1770. The city remained in Ottoman hands until Thessaly became part of the independent Kingdom of Greece in 1881, except for a period where Ottoman forces re-occupied it during the Greco-Turkish War of 1897.</p><br>
<p>In the 19th century, there was a small village in the outskirts of town very unusually inhabited by Africans from Sudan, a curious remnant of the forces collected by Ali Pasha. In the 19th century, the town produced leather, cotton, silk and tobacco. Fevers and agues were prevalent owing to bad drainage and the overflowing of the river; and the death rate was higher than the birth rate. It was also renowned for the minarets of its mosques (four of which were still in use in the early part of the 20th century) and the Muslim burial grounds.</p><br>
<h3>Modern Greek era</h3><br>
<p>Larissa was the headquarters of Hursid Pasha during the Greek War of Independence. In 1881, the city, along with the rest of Thessaly, was incorporated into the Kingdom of Greece. A considerable portion of the Turkish population emigrated into the Ottoman Empire at that point. During the Greco-Turkish War of 1897, the city was the headquarters of Greek Crown Prince Constantine. The flight of the Greek army from here to Farsala took place on April 23, 1897. Turkish troops entered the city two days later. After a treaty for peace was signed, they withdrew and Larissa remained permanently in Greece. This was followed by a further exodus of Turks in 1898.</p><br>
<p>During the Axis Occupation of the country, the Jewish community of the city (dated back to 2nd BC, see Romaniotes) suffered heavy losses. Today in the city there is a Holocaust memorial and a synagogue.</p><br>
<h3>Larissa Nowadays</h3><br>
<h2>Ecclesiastical history</h2><br>
<p>Christianity penetrated early to Larissa, though its first bishop is recorded only in 325 at the Council of Nicaea. St. Achillius of the 4th century, is celebrated for his miracles. Le Quien cites twenty-nine bishops from the fourth to the 18th centuries; the most famous is Jeremias II, who occupied the see until 733, when the Emperor Leo III the Isaurian transferred it from the jurisdiction of the Pope of Rome to the Patriarchate of Constantinople. In the first years of the 10th century it had ten suffragan sees; subsequently the number increased and about the year 1175 under the Emperor Manuel I Comnenus, it reached twenty-eight. At the close of the 15th century, under the Turkish domination, there were only ten suffragan sees, which gradually grew less and finally disappeared.</p><br>
<p>Larissa is an Orthodox Metropolis of the Church of Greece. It was briefly a Latin archbishopric in the early 13th century, and remains a Latin Metropolitan (top-ranking) titular see of the Roman Catholic Church, which must not be confused with the Latin episcopal (low-ranking) titular see Larissa in Syria.</p><br>
<h2>Administration</h2><br>
<p>The municipality Larissa was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 3 former municipalities, that became municipal units:</p><br>
<p>Giannouli</p><br>
<p>Koilada</p><br>
<p>Larissa</p><br>
<h3>Districts</h3><br>
<p>The municipal unit of Larissa is divided into four city-districts or municipal communities (29 city areas) plus 2 suburban communities (Amphithea and Koulourion). The municipality includes also the Community of Terpsithèa (with the suburban community of Argyssa).</p><br>
<p>1st Municipal District</p><br>
<p>(pop. 26,035)</p><br>
<p>Papastàvrou</p><br>
<p>Saint Athanàsios</p><br>
<p>Alkazàr</p><br>
<p>Hippocrates-Pèra</p><br>
<p>Potamòpolis</p><br>
<p>Philippòpolis</p><br>
<p>Livadàki</p><br>
<p>Saint Thomas</p><br>
<p>Saint Paraskevi-Mezourlo</p><br>
<p>Neàpolis</p><br>
<p>2nd Municipal District</p><br>
<p>(pop. 41,816)</p><br>
<p>Saint Achellios</p><br>
<p>Saint Nikòlaos</p><br>
<p>Ambelòkipoi</p><br>
<p>Saints Sarànta</p><br>
<p>Saint Konstantinos</p><br>
<p>Stathmòs</p><br>
<p>3rd Municipal District</p><br>
<p>(pop. 30,121)</p><br>
<p>Lachanòkipoi</p><br>
<p>Nèa Smyrne-Kamynia</p><br>
<p>Kalyvia-Saint Marina</p><br>
<p>Saint Geòrgios</p><br>
<p>Anatoli</p><br>
<p>Koulouri</p><br>
<p>Amphithèa</p><br>
<p>4th Municipal District</p><br>
<p>(pop. 26,814)</p><br>
<p>Charavgi-Toumba-OKE</p><br>
<p>Pyrovolikà-Pharos</p><br>
<p>Avèrof-Sèkfo</p><br>
<p>Nèa Politia</p><br>
<p>Epiròtika</p><br>
<p>Anthoupolis</p><br>
<p>Neràida</p><br>
<p>Kàmpos</p><br>
<p>Community of Terpsithèa</p><br>
<p>(pop. 1,290)</p><br>
<p>Terpsithèa</p><br>
<p>Argyssa</p><br>
<p>From 1 January 2011, in accordance with the Kallikratis Plan (new administrative division of Greece), the new municipality of Larissa includes also the former municipalities of Giannouli and Koilada.</p><br>
<h3>Province</h3><br>
<p>The province of Larissa (Επαρχία Λάρισας) was one of the provinces of the Larissa Prefecture. Its territory corresponded with that of the current municipalities Larissa (except the municipal unit Giannouli) and Tempi (except the municipal units Gonnoi and Kato Olympos). It was abolished in 2006.</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<h3>Archaeological sites</h3><br>
<p>Ancient Theatre B&#39;</p><br>
<h3>Cuisine</h3><br>
<p>Local specialities:</p><br>
<p>Batzina</p><br>
<p>Kelaidi (Κελαηδί)</p><br>
<p>Kreatopita</p><br>
<p>Loukanikopita</p><br>
<p>Melintzanopita</p><br>
<p>Tyropita</p><br>
<h3>Museums</h3><br>
<p>Veterinary Military Museum of Larissa</p><br>
<p>Museum of Folklore Society of Larissa</p><br>
<h3>Media</h3><br>
<p>TV: Thessalian Radio Television (TRT), Astra TV</p><br>
<p>Press: Eleftheria (newspaper)</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>Larissa sits in the middle of the plain of Thessaly, with connections to Motorway A1 and national roads EO3 and EO6.</p><br>
<p>Larissa&#39;s Urban Bus System</p><br>
<p>Larissa&#39;s Interurban System</p><br>
<p>Larissa Central Railway Station at 39&deg;37&prime;46&Prime;N latitude, 22&deg;25&prime;22.2&Prime;E longitude</p><br>
<p>Mezourlo Freight Railway station at 39&deg;37&prime;08&Prime;N latitude, 22&deg;24&prime;30&Prime;E longitude</p><br>
<p>Larissa Airport</p><br>
<p>Larissa Tram (planned)</p><br>
<h2>Close destinations</h2><br>
<p>The city is in close proximity of many interesting destinations in the region (Mount Olympus, Mount Kissavos, Meteora, Lake Plastira, Pilio, etc.) suitable for daily trips.</p><br>
<h2>Sports</h2><br>
<p>The local football club AEL 1964 FC currently participates in Superleague Greece. The team became Greek champion in 1988 and won the Greek Cup in 1985 and 2007. These titles place AEL among the five most important football clubs in Greece. AEL hosts its home games in the newbuild AEL FC Arena since November 2010, a UEFA 3-star-rated football ground.</p><br>
<p>Other important sport venues are the National Sport Center of Larissa (EAK Larissas), which includes the Alcazar Stadium and the Neapoli Indoor Hall.</p><br>
<p>The National Sports Center of Larissa can accommodate a number of sports and events (football, basketball, wrestling, swimming, boxing, martial arts, handball, water polo, etc.), while the Sports Hall has hosted important athletic events (the World Youth Championship, the Women&#39;s Euroleague Final Four, the Greek Cup Final Four, martial arts events, et.c.) and it is also used for cultural events, such as dance festivals.</p><br>
<h2>Historical population</h2><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<h3>Ancient</h3><br>
<p>Achilles (mythology)</p><br>
<p>Achillius of Larissa (270–330), patron saint of the city</p><br>
<p>Hippokrates of Kos (460 BC–370 BC), physician, worked and died in Larissa</p><br>
<p>Larissa, mythological nymph from Thessaly</p><br>
<p>Medius (4th century BC), friend of Alexander the Great</p><br>
<p>Philinna (4th century BC), dancer, mother of Philip III Arrhidaeus</p><br>
<p>Philo (1st century BC), philosopher</p><br>
<h3>Modern</h3><br>
<p>Giorgakis Olympios (1772–1821), armatolos</p><br>
<p>Theoklitos Farmakidis (1784–1860), scholar, figure of the Modern Greek Enlightenment</p><br>
<p>Achilleas Tzartzanos (1873–1946), linguist, philologist</p><br>
<p>George Seremetis (1879–1950), lawyer, mayor of Thessaloniki</p><br>
<p>Sotiris Skipis (1881–1952), poet</p><br>
<p>Agenor Asteriades (1898-1977), painter</p><br>
<p>M. Karagatsis (1908–1960), novelist, journalist</p><br>
<p>Eleni Zafeiriou (1916–2004), actress</p><br>
<p>Antonis Vratsanos (1919–2008), resistance figure during WWII</p><br>
<p>Takis Tloupas (1920–2003), photographer</p><br>
<p>Kostas Gousgounis (1931–), porn actor</p><br>
<p>Athena Tacha (1936–), artist</p><br>
<p>Georgios Souflias (1941–), politician</p><br>
<p>Petros Efthimiou (1950–), politician</p><br>
<p>Konstantinos Tzanakoulis (1950–), politician</p><br>
<p>Lakis Lazopoulos (1956–), actor, comedian, script author & director</p><br>
<p>Thanasis Papakonstantinou (1959–), poet, songwriter, singer, musician</p><br>
<p>Kosmas Stratos (1959–), 100m sprinter</p><br>
<p>Georgios Mitsibonas (1962–1997), footballer</p><br>
<p>Vassilis Karapialis (1965–), footballer</p><br>
<p>Ekaterini Voggoli (1970–), discus thrower</p><br>
<p>Dimitris Andrikopoulos (1971–), composer</p><br>
<p>Alexis Georgoulis (1974–), actor</p><br>
<p>Yannis Goumas (1975–), footballer</p><br>
<p>Dimosthenis Dikoudis (1977–), basketball player</p><br>
<p>Nestoras Kommatos (1977–), basketball player</p><br>
<p>Fani Halkia (1979–), hurdler</p><br>
<p>Dimitris Spanoulis (1979–), basketball player</p><br>
<p>Theofanis Gekas (1980–), footballer</p><br>
<p>Vangelis Moras (1981–), footballer</p><br>
<p>Vassilis Spanoulis (1982–), basketball player</p><br>
<p>Giorgos Tsiaras (1982–), basketball player</p><br>
<p>Kostas Chalkias (1974–), footballer</p><br>
<p>Thanasis Deligiannis (1983–), composer</p><br>
<p>Apostolis Totsikas (1983–), actor</p><br>
<p>Vasilios Koutsianikoulis (1988–), footballer</p><br>
<h2>International relations</h2><br>
<h3>Twin towns — sister cities</h3><br>
<p>Larissa is twinned with:</p><br>
<p>Lake Abitibi  is a lake in northeastern Ontario and western Quebec, Canada. The lake, which lies within the vast Clay Belt, is separated in two distinct portions by a short narrows, making it actually 2 lakes. Its total area is 931 km², and net area 903 km². The lake is shallow and studded with islands. Its shores and vicinity are covered with small timber.</p><br>
<p>Its outlet is the Abitibi River, a tributary the Moose River, which empties into James Bay. The lake takes its name from the river. "Abitibi" comes from the Algonquin words abitah, meaning middle and nipi meaning water, possibly a reference to its geographic location between the Harricana (from the Algonquin word Nanikana, meaning "the main way") to the east and the Kapuskasing&ndash;Mattagami river system to the west.</p><br>
<h2>European Exploration</h2><br>
<p>Application of Abitibi to describe the lake and the people living in the area around it was first noted in The Jesuit Relations in 1640. One of the first Europeans in this area was Pierre de Troyes, who built a post on Lake Abitibi when he was on his way to capture English HBC posts on James Bay in 1686. The Abitibi Post lay halfway between trading posts on James Bay and those on the Ottawa River.</p><br>
<p>It was formerly used by the Hudson&#39;s Bay Company (HBC) as part of a canoe route to the fur lands of the north. A HBC trading post was located on the east shore of the lake in Ontario. The construction of the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway (now Canadian National Railway) through this district made it of some importance at the start of the 20th century.</p><br>
<p>Portions of Lake Abitibi&#39;s western shores and a section of the Abitibi River are part of the Abitibi-de-Troyes Provincial Park.</p><br>
<p>Lake Nicaragua or Cocibolca or Granada  is a freshwater lake in Nicaragua. Of tectonic origin and with an area of 8,264 km&sup2, it is the largest lake in Central America, the 19th largest lake in the world  and the 9th largest in the Americas, slightly smaller than Lake Titicaca. With an elevation of 32.7 m above sea level, the lake reaches a depth of 26 m. It is intermittently joined by the Tipitapa River to Lake Managua.</p><br>
<p>The lake drains to the Caribbean Sea via the San Juan River, historically making the lakeside city of Granada, Nicaragua, an Atlantic port although Granada (as well as the entire lake) is closer to the Pacific Ocean geographically. The Pacific is near enough to be seen from the mountains of Ometepe (an island in the lake). The lake has a history of Caribbean pirates who assaulted Granada on three occasions. Before construction of the Panama Canal, a stagecoach line owned by Cornelius Vanderbilt&#39;s Accessory Transit Company connected the lake with the Pacific across the low hills of the narrow Isthmus of Rivas. Plans were made to take advantage of this route to build an interoceanic canal, the Nicaragua Canal, but the Panama Canal was built instead. In order to quell competition with the Panama Canal, the USA secured all rights to a canal along this route in the Bryan-Chamorro Treaty of 1916. However, since this treaty was mutually rescinded by the United States and Nicaragua in 1970, the idea of another canal in Nicaragua still periodically resurfaced, such as the Ecocanal proposal. In 2014, the government of Nicaragua offered a 50-year concession to the Hong Kong Nicaragua Canal Development Investment Co. (HKND) to build a canal across Nicaragua at a cost of US$40 billion, with construction beginning in December 2014 and completing in 2019. Protests against the ecological and social effects of the canal as well as questions about financing have led to doubts about the project.</p><br>
<h2>Lake ecology</h2><br>
<p>Lake Nicaragua, despite being a freshwater lake, has sawfish, tarpon, and sharks. a species also known for entering freshwater elsewhere around the world. It had been presumed that the sharks were trapped within the lake, but this was found to be incorrect in the late 1960s, when it was discovered that they were able to jump along the rapids of the San Juan River (which connects Lake Nicaragua and the Caribbean Sea), almost like salmon. As evidence of these movements, bull sharks tagged inside the lake have later been caught in the open ocean (and vice versa), with some taking as little as 7–11 days to complete the journey. Numerous other species of fish live in the lake, including at least 16 cichlids that are endemic to the general region (none are strictly endemic to this lake, although Amphilophus labiatus is native only to the Nicaragua and Managua lakes). A non-native cichlid, a tilapia, is used widely in aquaculture within the lake. Owing to the large amount of waste they produce, and the risk of introducing diseases to which the native fish species have no resistance, they are potentially a serious threat to the lake&#39;s ecosystem.</p><br>
<p>Nicaraguans call the Lake Lago Cocibolca or Mar Dulce (literally, Sweet Sea; in Spanish, freshwater is agua dulce). It is the nation&#39;s largest source of freshwater. The lake has sizeable waves driven by the easterly winds blowing west to the Pacific Ocean. The lake holds Ometepe and Zapatera, which are both volcanic islands, as well as the archipelago of the Solentiname Islands. The lake has a reputation for periodically powerful, unnavigable storms.</p><br>
<p>In the past 37 years, considerable concern has been expressed about the ecological condition of Lake Nicaragua. In 1981 the Nicaraguan Institute of Natural Resources and the Environment (IRENA) conducted an environmental assessment study and found that half of the water sources sampled were seriously polluted by sewage. It was found that 32 tons (70,000 pounds) of raw sewage were being released into Lake Nicaragua daily. Industry located along the lakes shore had been dumping effluent for an extended period of time. Pennwalt Chemical Corporation was found to be the worst polluter. Nicaraguas economic situation has hampered the building of treatment facilities nationwide (see: Water supply and sanitation in Nicaragua).</p><br>
<p>The country&#39;s worst drought in 32 years (as of August 2014) is taking its toll on the lake; the Nicaraguan government has recommended citizens grow and eat iguanas over chickens to reduce water consumption. Also, plans for the Nicaragua canal through the lake could lead to saltwater and other contamination during construction and operation of the canal. According to the plans and geography, the lake is 32 meters above sea level.</p><br>
<p>Mount Logan is the highest mountain in Canada and the second-highest peak in North America, after Denali. The mountain was named after Sir William Edmond Logan, a Canadian geologist and founder of the Geological Survey of Canada . Mount Logan is located within Kluane National Park Reserve in southwestern Yukon, less than 40 km north of the Yukon/Alaska border. Mount Logan is the source of the Hubbard and Logan Glaciers. Logan is believed to have the largest base circumference of any non-volcanic mountain on Earth , including a massif with eleven peaks over 5,000 m.</p><br>
<p>Due to active tectonic uplifting, Mount Logan is still rising in height. Before 1992, the exact elevation of Mount Logan was unknown and measurements ranged from 5959 to 6050 m. In May 1992, a GSC expedition climbed Mount Logan and fixed the current height of 5,959 m using GPS.</p><br>
<p>Temperatures are extremely low on and near Mount Logan. On the 5,000 m high plateau, air temperature hovers around -45 &deg;C in the winter and reaches near freezing in summer with the median temperature for the year around -27 &deg;C. Minimal snow melt leads to a significant ice cap, reaching almost 300 m in certain spots.</p><br>
<h2>Peaks of the massif</h2><br>
<p>The Mount Logan massif is considered to contain all the surrounding peaks with less than 500 m of prominence, as listed below:</p><br>
<h2>First ascent</h2><br>
<p>In 1922, a geologist approached the Alpine Club of Canada with the suggestion that the club send a team to the mountain to reach the summit for the first time. An international team of Canadian, British and American climbers was assembled and initially they had planned their attempt in 1924 but funding and preparation delays postponed the trip until 1925. The international team of climbers began their journey in early May, crossing the mainland from the Pacific coast by train. They then walked the remaining 200 km to within 10 km of the Logan Glacier where they established base camp. In the early evening of June 23, 1925, Albert H. MacCarthy (leader), H.F. Lambart, Allen Carpé, W.W. Foster, Norman H. Read and Andy Taylor stood on top for the first time.</p><br>
<h2>Subsequent notable ascents and attempts</h2><br>
<p>1957 East Ridge. Don Monk, Gil Roberts and 3 others (US) reached the summit on July 19.</p><br>
<p>1965 Hummingbird Ridge (South Ridge). Dick Long, Allen Steck, Jim Wilson, John Evans, Franklin Coale Sr. and Paul Bacon (US) over 30 days, mid-July to Mid-August. Fred Beckey remarked: "When they got back we just couldnt believe that they had climbed that thing. We didnt think they had a chance". Featured in Fifty Classic Climbs of North America.</p><br>
<p>1967, August, the first ski descent of the mountain was made in two stages by Daniel C. Taylor main summit to the Kluane glacier</p><br>
<p>1977 Warbler Ridge. Dave Jones, Frank Baumann, Fred Thiessen, Jay Page (all from Canada) and Rene Bucher (Swiss) in 22 days.</p><br>
<p>1979 Northwest Ridge. Michael Down (CA), Paul Kindree, John Howe, Reid Carter and John Wittmayer climbed to the summit over 22 days, topping out on June 19.</p><br>
<p>1979 South-Southwest Ridge. Raymond Jotterand (CA), Alan Burgess, Jim Elzinga and John Laughlan reached the summit after 15 days of climbing on June 30 and July 1.</p><br>
<p>1987 an alpine-style attempt on the Hummingbird Ridge ended with the deaths of Catherine Freer (US), North America&#39;s strongest female alpinist, and David Cheesmond from South Africa and Canada, considered among the best alpinists in the world, when a snow cornice broke.</p><br>
<p>1992 June 6, an expedition sponsored by the Royal Canadian Geographic Society confirmed the height of Mount Logan using GPS. The leader was Michael Schmidt, with Lisel Currie, Leo Nadeay, Charlie Roots, J-C. Lavergne, Roger Laurilla, Pat Morrow, Karl Nagy, Sue Gould, Alan Björn, Lloyd Freese, Kevin McLaughlin and Rick Staley.</p><br>
<p>2017 May 24, 15-year-old Naomi Prohaska reached the summit, the youngest person to do so. She was part of a team led by her father.</p><br>
<h2>Proposed renaming</h2><br>
<p>Following the death of former Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, Prime Minister Jean Chrétien, a close friend of Trudeau&#39;s, considered renaming the mountain Mount Trudeau</p><br>
<p>however, opposition from Yukoners, mountaineers, geologists, Trudeaus political critics, and many other Canadians forced the plan to be dropped. A mountain in British Columbias Premier Range was named Mount Pierre Elliott Trudeau instead.</p><br>
<h2>May 2005 rescue</h2><br>
<p>During the last few days of May 2005, three climbers from the North Shore Search and Rescue team of North Vancouver became stranded on the mountain. A joint operation by Canadian and American forces rescued the three climbers and took them to Anchorage, Alaska for treatment of frostbite.</p><br>
<p>The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on the east by the Levant. Although the sea is sometimes considered a part of the Atlantic Ocean, it is usually identified as a separate body of water. Geological evidence indicates that around 5.9 million years ago, the Mediterranean was cut off from the Atlantic and was partly or completely desiccated over a period of some 600,000 years before being refilled by the Zanclean flood about 5.3 million years ago.</p><br>
<p>The name Mediterranean is derived from the Latin mediterraneus, meaning "inland" or "in the middle of land" (from medius, "middle" and terra, "land"). It covers an approximate area of 2.5 million km (965,000 sq mi), but its connection to the Atlantic (the Strait of Gibraltar) is only 14 km wide. The Strait of Gibraltar is a narrow strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Gibraltar and Spain in Europe from Morocco in Africa. In oceanography, it is sometimes called the Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea or the European Mediterranean Sea to distinguish it from mediterranean seas elsewhere.</p><br>
<p>The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1,500 m and the deepest recorded point is 5,267 m in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea. The sea is bordered on the north by Europe, the east by Asia, and in the south by Africa. It is located between latitudes 30° and 46° N and longitudes 6° W and 36° E. Its west-east length, from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Gulf of Iskenderun, on the southwestern coast of Turkey, is approximately 4,000 km (2,500 miles). The sea&#39;s average north-south length, from Croatia’s southern shore to Libya, is approximately 800 km (500 miles). The Mediterranean Sea, including the Sea of Marmara (connected by the Dardanelles to the Aegean Sea), has a surface area of approximately 2,510,000 square km (970,000 square miles).</p><br>
<p>The sea was an important route for merchants and travellers of ancient times that allowed for trade and cultural exchange between emergent peoples of the region. The history of the Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many modern societies.</p><br>
<p>The countries with coastlines on the Mediterranean Sea are Albania, Algeria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Morocco, Monaco, Montenegro, Slovenia, Spain, Syria, Tunisia and Turkey. In addition, the Gaza Strip and the British Overseas Territories of Gibraltar and Akrotiri and Dhekelia have coastlines on the sea.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The term Mediterranean derives from the Latin word mediterraneus, meaning "amid the earth (note: earth in the sense "soil", not Planet Earth)" or "between land" (medi-; adj. medius, -um -a "middle, between" + terra f., "land, earth"): as it is between the continents of Africa, Asia and Europe. The Ancient Greek name Mesogeios (Μεσόγειος), is similarly from μέσο, "between" + γη, "land, earth"). It can be compared with the Ancient Greek name Mesopotamia (Μεσοποταμία), meaning "between rivers".</p><br>
<p>The Mediterranean Sea has historically had several names. For example, the Carthaginians called it the "Syrian Sea" and latter Romans commonly called it Mare Nostrum ("Our Sea"), and occasionally Mare Internum and in Greek as the "Mare Magnum", meaning "Great Sea".</p><br>
<p>In ancient Syrian texts, Phoenician epics and in the Hebrew Bible, it was primarily known as the "Great Sea" (הַיָּם הַגָּדוֹל, HaYam HaGadol, Numbers 34:6,7; Joshua 1:4, 9:1, 15:47; Ezekiel 47:10,15,20), or simply "The Sea" (1 Kings 5:9; comp. 1 Macc. 14:34, 15:11); however, it has also been called the "Hinder Sea" (הַיָּם הָאַחֲרוֹן), due to its location on the west coast of Greater Syria or the Holy Land, and therefore behind a person facing the east, sometimes translated as "Western Sea", (Deut. 11:24; Joel 2:20). Another name was the "Sea of the Philistines" (יָם פְּלִשְׁתִּים, Exod. 23:31), from the people inhabiting a large portion of its shores near the Israelites.</p><br>
<p>In Modern Hebrew, it has been called HaYam HaTikhon (הַיָּם הַתִּיכוֹן), "the Middle Sea", reflecting the Sea&#39;s name in ancient Greek (Mesogeios), Latin Mare internum (Inner Sea) or Mare Nostrum (Our Sea), and modern languages in both Europe and the Middle East (Mediterranean, etc.).</p><br>
<p>Similarly, in Modern Arabic, it is known as, "the Middle Sea", while in Islamic and older Arabic literature, it was referenced as (بحر الروم), or "the Roman/Byzantine Sea."</p><br>
<p>In Ottoman Turkish, it has also been called Bahr-i Sefid, meaning the "Pure White Sea".</p><br>
<p>In Turkish, it is known as Akdeniz, meaning "the White Sea", to distinguish it from the Black Sea.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Ancient civilisations</h3><br>
<p>Several ancient civilisations were located around the Mediterranean shores, and were greatly influenced by their proximity to the sea. It provided routes for trade, colonisation, and war, as well as food (from fishing and the gathering of other seafood) for numerous communities throughout the ages.</p><br>
<p>Due to the shared climate, geology, and access to the sea, cultures centered on the Mediterranean tended to have some extent of intertwined culture and history.</p><br>
<p>Two of the most notable Mediterranean civilisations in classical antiquity were the Greek city states and the Phoenicians, both of which extensively colonised the coastlines of the Mediterranean. Later, when Augustus founded the Roman Empire, the Romans referred to the Mediterranean as Mare Nostrum ("Our Sea").</p><br>
<p>Darius I of Persia, who conquered Ancient Egypt, built a canal linking the Mediterranean to the Red Sea. Darius&#39;s canal was wide enough for two triremes to pass each other with oars extended, and required four days to traverse.</p><br>
<h3>Middle Ages and empires</h3><br>
<p>The Western Roman Empire collapsed around AD 476. Temporarily the east was again dominant as Roman power lived on in the Byzantine Empire formed in the 4th century from the eastern half of the Roman empire. Another power arose in the 7th century, and with it the religion of Islam, which soon swept across from the east; at its greatest extent, the Arab Empire controlled 75% of the Mediterranean region and left a lasting footprint on its eastern and southern shores.</p><br>
<p>Europe started to revive, however, as more organised and centralised states began to form in the later Middle Ages after the Renaissance of the 12th century.</p><br>
<p>Ottoman power based in Anatolia continued to grow, and in 1453 extinguished the Byzantine Empire with the Conquest of Constantinople. Ottomans gained control of much of the sea in the 16th century and maintained naval bases in southern France, Algeria and Tunisia. Barbarossa, the famous Ottoman captain is a symbol of this domination with the victory of the Battle of Preveza (1538). The Battle of Djerba (1560) marked the apex of Ottoman naval domination in the Mediterranean. As the naval prowess of the European powers increased, they confronted Ottoman expansion in the region when the Battle of Lepanto (1571) checked the power of the Ottoman Navy. This was the last naval battle to be fought primarily between galleys.</p><br>
<p>The Barbary pirates of North Africa preyed on Christian shipping and coastlines in the Western Mediterranean Sea. According to Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th centuries, pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans as slaves.</p><br>
<p>The development of oceanic shipping began to affect the entire Mediterranean. Once, most trade between Western Europe and the East had passed through the region, but after the 1490s the development of a sea route to the Indian Ocean allowed the importation of Asian spices and other goods through the Atlantic ports of western Europe. – Sephardic Studies and Culture – Retrieved 3 September 2011.</p><br>
<p>Robert Guisepi – – 1992 – History World International – Retrieved 3 September 2011.</p><br>
<h3>21st century and migrations</h3><br>
<p>In 2013 the Maltese president described the Mediterranean sea as a "cemetery" due to the large amounts of migrants who drowned there after their boats capsized. European Parliament president Martin Schulz said in 2014 that Europe&#39;s migration policy "turned the Mediterranean into a graveyard", referring to the number of drowned refugees in the region as a direct result of the policies. An Azerbaijani official described the sea as "a burial ground... where people die".</p><br>
<p>Following the 2013 Lampedusa migrant shipwreck, the Italian government decided to strengthen the national system for the patrolling of the Mediterranean Sea by authorising "Operation Mare Nostrum", a military and humanitarian mission in order to rescue the migrants and arrest the traffickers of immigrants. In 2015, more than one million migrants crossed the Mediterranean Sea into Europe.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Mediterranean Sea is connected to the Atlantic Ocean by the Strait of Gibraltar (known in Homer&#39;s writings as the "Pillars of Hercules") in the west and to the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea, by the Dardanelles and the Bosporus respectively, in the east. The Sea of Marmara (Dardanelles) is often considered a part of the Mediterranean Sea, whereas the Black Sea is generally not. The 163 km long artificial Suez Canal in the southeast connects the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea.</p><br>
<p>Large islands in the Mediterranean include Cyprus, Crete, Euboea, Rhodes, Lesbos, Chios, Kefalonia, Corfu, Limnos, Samos, Naxos and Andros in the Eastern Mediterranean; Sicily, Cres, Krk, Brač, Hvar, Pag, Korčula and Malta in the central Mediterranean; and Sardinia, Corsica, Ibiza, Majorca and Menorca (the Balearic Islands) in the Western Mediterranean.</p><br>
<p>The typical Mediterranean climate has hot, humid, and dry summers and mild, rainy winters. Crops of the region include olives, grapes, oranges, tangerines, and cork.</p><br>
<h3>Extent</h3><br>
<p>The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Mediterranean Sea as follows:</p><br>
<p>Stretching from the Strait of Gibraltar in the west to the entrances to the Dardanelles and the Suez Canal in the east, the Mediterranean Sea is bounded by the coasts of Europe, Africa and Asia, and is divided into two deep basins:</p><br>
<p>Western Basin:</p><br>
<p>On the west: A line joining the extremities of Cape Trafalgar (Spain) and Cape Spartel (Africa).</p><br>
<p>On the northeast: The west coast of Italy. In the Strait of Messina a line joining the north extreme of Cape Paci (15°42&#39;E) with Cape Peloro, the east extreme of the Island of Sicily. The north coast of Sicily.</p><br>
<p>On the east: A line joining Cape Lilibeo the western point of Sicily (37&deg;47&prime;N latitude, 12&deg;22&prime;E longitude), through the Adventure Bank to Cape Bon (Tunisia).</p><br>
<p>Eastern Basin:</p><br>
<p>On the west: The northeastern and eastern limits of the Western Basin.</p><br>
<p>On the northeast: A line joining Kum Kale (26°11&#39;E) and Cape Helles, the western entrance to the Dardanelles.</p><br>
<p>On the southeast: The entrance to the Suez Canal.</p><br>
<p>On the east: The coasts of Syria and Israel.</p><br>
<h3>Oceanography</h3><br>
<p>Being nearly landlocked affects conditions in the Mediterranean Sea: for instance, tides are very limited as a result of the narrow connection with the Atlantic Ocean. The Mediterranean is characterised and immediately recognised by its deep blue colour.</p><br>
<p>Evaporation greatly exceeds precipitation and river runoff in the Mediterranean, a fact that is central to the water circulation within the basin. Evaporation is especially high in its eastern half, causing the water level to decrease and salinity to increase eastward. The salinity at 5 m depth is 3.8%.</p><br>
<p>The pressure gradient pushes relatively cool, low-salinity water from the Atlantic across the basin; it warms and becomes saltier as it travels east, then sinks in the region of the Levant and circulates westward, to spill over the Strait of Gibraltar. Thus, seawater flow is eastward in the Strait&#39;s surface waters, and westward below; once in the Atlantic, this chemically distinct Mediterranean Intermediate Water can persist thousands of kilometres away from its source.</p><br>
<p>The temperature of the water in the deepest part of the Mediterranean Sea is 13.2 &deg;C.</p><br>
<h3>Coastal countries</h3><br>
<p>The following countries have a coastline on the Mediterranean Sea:</p><br>
<p>Northern shore (from west to east): Spain, France, Monaco, Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, Greece and Turkey.</p><br>
<p>Eastern shore (from north to south): Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel.</p><br>
<p>Southern shore (from west to east): Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt.</p><br>
<p>Island nations: Malta, Cyprus.</p><br>
<p>Several other territories also border the Mediterranean Sea (from west to east): The British overseas territory of Gibraltar, the Spanish autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla and nearby islands, the Sovereign Base Areas on Cyprus, and the Gaza Strip.</p><br>
<h3>Coastal cities</h3><br>
<p>Major cities (municipalities) with populations larger than 200,000 people bordering the Mediterranean Sea are:</p><br>
<h3>Subdivisions</h3><br>
<p>According to the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO), the Mediterranean Sea is subdivided into a number of smaller waterbodies, each with their own designation (from west to east):</p><br>
<p>the Strait of Gibraltar</p><br>
<p>the Alboran Sea, between Spain and Morocco</p><br>
<p>the Balearic Sea, between mainland Spain and its Balearic Islands</p><br>
<p>the Ligurian Sea between Corsica and Liguria (Italy)</p><br>
<p>the Tyrrhenian Sea enclosed by Sardinia, Italian peninsula and Sicily</p><br>
<p>the Ionian Sea between Italy, Albania and Greece</p><br>
<p>the Adriatic Sea between Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Albania</p><br>
<p>the Aegean Sea between Greece and Turkey.</p><br>
<h4>Other seas</h4><br>
<p>Although not recognised by the IHO treaties, there are some other seas whose names have been in common use from the ancient times, or in the present:</p><br>
<p>the Sea of Sardinia, between Sardinia and Balearic Islands, as a part of the Balearic Sea</p><br>
<p>the Sea of Sicily between Sicily and Tunisia,</p><br>
<p>the Libyan Sea between Libya and Crete,</p><br>
<p>In the Aegean Sea,</p><br>
<p>the Thracian Sea in its north,</p><br>
<p>the Myrtoan Sea between the Cyclades and the Peloponnese,</p><br>
<p>the Sea of Crete north of Crete,</p><br>
<p>the Icarian Sea between Kos and Chios</p><br>
<p>the Cilician Sea between Turkey and Cyprus</p><br>
<p>the Levantine Sea at the eastern end of the Mediterranean</p><br>
<p>Many of these smaller seas feature in local myth and folklore and derive their names from these associations.</p><br>
<h4>Other features</h4><br>
<p>In addition to the seas, a number of gulfs and straits are also recognised:</p><br>
<p>the Saint George Bay in Beirut, Lebanon</p><br>
<p>the Ras Ibn Hani cape in Latakia, Syria</p><br>
<p>the Ras al-Bassit cape in northern Syria.</p><br>
<p>the Minet el-Beida ("White Harbour") bay near ancient Ugarit, Syria</p><br>
<p>the Strait of Gibraltar, connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Spain from Morocco</p><br>
<p>the Bay of Gibraltar, at the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula</p><br>
<p>the Gulf of Corinth, an enclosed sea between the Ionian Sea and the Corinth Canal</p><br>
<p>the Pagasetic Gulf, the gulf of Volos, south of the Thermaic Gulf, formed by the Mount Pelion peninsula</p><br>
<p>the Saronic Gulf, the gulf of Athens, between the Corinth Canal and the Mirtoan Sea</p><br>
<p>the Thermaic Gulf, the gulf of Thessaloniki, located in the northern Greek region of Macedonia</p><br>
<p>the Kvarner Gulf, Croatia</p><br>
<p>the Gulf of Lion, south of France</p><br>
<p>the Gulf of Valencia, east of Spain</p><br>
<p>the Strait of Messina, between Sicily and the toe of Italy</p><br>
<p>the Gulf of Genoa, northwestern Italy</p><br>
<p>the Gulf of Venice, northeastern Italy</p><br>
<p>the Gulf of Trieste, northeastern Italy</p><br>
<p>the Gulf of Taranto, southern Italy off the coast of Croatia; the Adriatic Sea contains over 1200 islands and islets</p><br>
<p>the Gulf of Salerno, southwestern Italy</p><br>
<p>the Gulf of Gaeta, southwestern Italy</p><br>
<p>the Gulf of Squillace, southern Italy</p><br>
<p>the Strait of Otranto, between Italy and Albania</p><br>
<p>the Gulf of Haifa, northern Israel</p><br>
<p>the Gulf of Sidra, between Tripolitania (western Libya) and Cyrenaica (eastern Libya)</p><br>
<p>the Strait of Sicily, between Sicily and Tunisia</p><br>
<p>the Corsica Channel, between Corsica and Italy</p><br>
<p>the Strait of Bonifacio, between Sardinia and Corsica</p><br>
<p>the Gulf of İskenderun, between İskenderun and Adana (Turkey)</p><br>
<p>the Gulf of Antalya, between west and east shores of Antalya (Turkey)</p><br>
<p>the Bay of Kotor, in south-western Montenegro and south-eastern Croatia</p><br>
<p>the Malta Channel, between Sicily and Malta</p><br>
<p>the Gozo Channel, between Malta Island and Gozo</p><br>
<h3>10 largest islands by area</h3><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<h4>Sea temperature</h4><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The geologic history of the Mediterranean Sea is complex. Underlain by oceanic crust, the sea basin was once thought to be a tectonic remnant of the ancient Tethys Ocean; it is now known to be a structurally younger basin, called the Neotethys, which was first formed by the convergence of the African and Eurasian plates during the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic. Because it is a near-landlocked body of water in a normally dry climate, the Mediterranean is subject to intensive evaporation and the precipitation of evaporites. The Messinian salinity crisis started about six million years ago (mya) when the Mediterranean became landlocked, and then essentially dried up. There are salt deposits accumulated on the bottom of the basin of more than a million cubic kilometres—in some places more than three kilometres thick.</p><br>
<p>Scientists estimate that the sea was last filled about 5.3 million years ago (mya) in less than two years by the Zanclean flood. Water poured in from the Atlantic Ocean through a newly breached gateway now called the Strait of Gibraltar at an estimated rate of about three orders of magnitude (one thousand times) larger than the current flow of the Amazon River.</p><br>
<p>The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1,500 m and the deepest recorded point is 5,267 m in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea. The coastline extends for 46,000 km. A shallow submarine ridge (the Strait of Sicily) between the island of Sicily and the coast of Tunisia divides the sea in two main subregions: the Western Mediterranean, with an area of about 850 thousand km (330 thousand mi); and the Eastern Mediterranean, of about 1.65 million km (640 thousand mi). A characteristic of the coastal Mediterranean are submarine karst springs or vruljas, which discharge pressurised groundwater into the coastal seawater from below the surface; the discharge water is usually fresh, and sometimes may be thermal.</p><br>
<h3>Tectonics and paleoenvironmental analysis</h3><br>
<p>The Mediterranean basin and sea system was established by the ancient African-Arabian continent colliding with the Eurasian continent. As Africa-Arabia drifted northward, it closed over the ancient Tethys Ocean which had earlier separated the two supercontinents Laurasia and Gondwana.</p><br>
<p>At about that time in the middle Jurassic period a much smaller sea basin, dubbed the Neotethys, was formed shortly before the Tethys Ocean closed at its western (Arabian) end. The broad line of collisions pushed up a very long system of mountains from the Pyrenees in Spain to the Zagros Mountains in Iran in an episode of mountain-building tectonics known as the Alpine orogeny. The Neotethys grew larger during the episodes of collisions (and associated foldings and subductions) that occurred during the Oligocene and Miocene epochs (34 to 5.33 mya); see animation: Africa-Arabia colliding with Eurasia. Accordingly, the Mediterranean basin consists of several stretched tectonic plates in subduction which are the foundation of the Eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea. Various zones of subduction harbour and form the deepest and most majestic oceanic ridges, east of the Ionian Sea and south of the Aegean. The Central Indian Ridge runs East of the Mediterranean Sea South-East across the in-between of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula into the Indian Ocean. Nevertheless, while man-made geopolitical turmoil and chaos have governed the coastlines of many various Mediterranean nations throughout the courses of ancient, modern, present and foreseeable history, the Plate tectonic status of nations bordering the Mediterranean Sea will find sharing the same geological concerns and fate.</p><br>
<h4>Messinian salinity crisis</h4><br>
<p>During Mesozoic and Cenozoic times, as the northwest corner of Africa converged on Iberia, it lifted the Betic-Rif mountain belts across southern Iberia and northwest Africa. There the development of the intramontane Betic and Rif basins led to creating two roughly-parallel marine gateways between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. Dubbed the Betic and Rifian corridors, they progressively closed during middle and late Miocene times; perhaps several times. During late Miocene times the closure of the Betic Corridor triggered the so-called "Messinian salinity crisis" (MSC), when the Mediterranean almost entirely dried out. The time of beginning of the MSC was recently estimated astronomically at 5.96 mya, and it persisted for some 630,000 years until about 5.3 mya; see Animation: Messinian salinity crisis, at right.</p><br>
<p>After the initial drawdown and re-flooding there followed more episodes—the total number is debated—of sea drawdowns and re-floodings for the duration of the MSC. It ended when the Atlantic Ocean last re-flooded the basin—creating the Strait of Gibraltar and causing the Zanclean flood—at the end of the Miocene (5.33 mya). Some research has suggested that a desiccation-flooding-desiccation cycle may have repeated several times, which could explain several events of large amounts of salt deposition. Recent studies, however, show that repeated desiccation and re-flooding is unlikely from a geodynamic point of view.</p><br>
<h4>Desiccation and exchanges of flora and fauna</h4><br>
<p>The present-day Atlantic gateway, i.e. the Strait of Gibraltar, originated in the early Pliocene via the Zanclean Flood. As mentioned, two other gateways preceded Gibraltar: the Betic Corridor across southern Spain and the Rifian Corridor across northern Morocco. The former gateway closed about six (6) mya, causing the Messinian salinity crisis (MSC); the latter or possibly both gateways closed during the earlier Tortonian times, causing a "Tortonian salinity crisis" (from 11.6 to 7.2 mya), which occurred well before the MSC and lasted much longer. Both "crises" resulted in broad connections of the mainlands of Africa and Europe, which thereby normalised migrations of flora and fauna—especially large mammals including primates—between the two continents. The Vallesian crisis indicates a typical extinction and replacement of mammal species in Europe during Tortonian times following climatic upheaval and overland migrations of new species; (Abstract) see Animation: Messinian salinity crisis (and mammal migrations), at right.</p><br>
<p>The near-completely enclosed configuration of the Mediterranean basin has enabled the oceanic gateways to dominate seawater circulation and the environmental evolution of the sea and basin. Circulation patterns are also affected by several other factors—including climate, bathymetry, and water chemistry and temperature—which are interactive and can induce precipitation of evaporites. Deposits of evaporites accumulated earlier in the nearby Carpathian foredeep during the Middle Miocene, and the adjacent Red Sea Basin (during the Late Miocene), and in the whole Mediterranean basin (during the MSC and the Messinian age). Diatomites are regularly found underneath the evaporite deposits, suggesting a connection between their geneses.</p><br>
<p>Today, evaporation of surface seawater (output) is more than the supply (input) of fresh water by precipitation and coastal drainage systems, causing the salinity of the Mediterranean to be much higher than that of the Atlantic—so much so that the saltier Mediterranean waters sink below the waters incoming from the Atlantic, causing a two-layer flow across the Gibraltar strait: that is, an outflow submarine current of warm saline Mediterranean water, counterbalanced by an inflow surface current of less saline cold oceanic water from the Atlantic. Herman Sörgel&#39;s Atlantropa project proposal in the 1920s proposed a hydroelectric dam to be built across the Strait of Gibraltar, using the inflow current to provide a large amount of hydroelectric energy. The underlying energy grid was as well intended to support a political union between Europe and, at least, the Marghreb part of Africa (compare Eurafrika for the later impact and Desertec for a later project with some parallels in the planned grid).</p><br>
<h4>Shift to a "Mediterranean climate"</h4><br>
<p>The end of the Miocene also marked a change in the climate of the Mediterranean basin. Fossil evidence from that period reveals that the larger basin had a humid subtropical climate with rainfall in the summer supporting laurel forests. The shift to a "Mediterranean climate" occurred largely within the last three million years (the late Pliocene epoch) as summer rainfall decreased. The subtropical laurel forests retreated; and even as they persisted on the islands of Macaronesia off the Atlantic coast of Iberia and North Africa, the present Mediterranean vegetation evolved, dominated by coniferous trees and sclerophyllous trees and shrubs with small, hard, waxy leaves that prevent moisture loss in the dry summers. Much of these forests and shrublands have been altered beyond recognition by thousands of years of human habitation. There are now very few relatively intact natural areas in what was once a heavily wooded region.</p><br>
<h2>Paleoclimate</h2><br>
<p>Because of its latitudinal position and its land-locked configuration, the Mediterranean is especially sensitive to astronomically induced climatic variations, which are well documented in its sedimentary record. Since the Mediterranean is involved in the deposition of eolian dust from the Sahara during dry periods, whereas riverine detrital input prevails during wet ones, the Mediterranean marine sapropel-bearing sequences provide high-resolution climatic information. These data have been employed in reconstructing astronomically calibrated time scales for the last 9 Ma of the Earths history, helping to constrain the time of past geomagnetic reversals. Furthermore, the exceptional accuracy of these paleoclimatic records has improved our knowledge of the Earths orbital variations in the past.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology and biota</h2><br>
<p>As a result of the drying of the sea during the Messinian salinity crisis, the marine biota of the Mediterranean are derived primarily from the Atlantic Ocean. The North Atlantic is considerably colder and more nutrient-rich than the Mediterranean, and the marine life of the Mediterranean has had to adapt to its differing conditions in the five million years since the basin was reflooded.</p><br>
<p>The Alboran Sea is a transition zone between the two seas, containing a mix of Mediterranean and Atlantic species. The Alboran Sea has the largest population of bottlenose dolphins in the Western Mediterranean, is home to the last population of harbour porpoises in the Mediterranean, and is the most important feeding grounds for loggerhead sea turtles in Europe. The Alboran sea also hosts important commercial fisheries, including sardines and swordfish. The Mediterranean monk seals live in the Aegean Sea in Greece. In 2003, the World Wildlife Fund raised concerns about the widespread drift net fishing endangering populations of dolphins, turtles, and other marine animals such as the ogre cancer.</p><br>
<h2>Environmental history</h2><br>
<p>For 4,000 years, human activity has transformed most parts of Mediterranean Europe, and the "humanisation of the landscape" overlapped with the appearance of the present Mediterranean climate. The image of a simplistic, environmental determinist notion of a Mediterranean Paradise on Earth in antiquity, which was destroyed by later civilisations dates back to at least the 18th century and was for centuries fashionable in archaeological and historical circles. Based on a broad variety of methods, e.g. historical documents, analysis of trade relations, floodplain sediments, pollen, tree-ring and further archaeometric analyses and population studies, Alfred Thomas Grove and Oliver Rackham&#39;s work on "The Nature of Mediterranean Europe" challenges this common wisdom of a Mediterranean Europe as a "Lost Eden", a formerly fertile and forested region, that had been progressively degraded and desertified by human mismanagement. The belief stems more from the failure of the recent landscape to measure up to the imaginary past of the classics as idealised by artists, poets and scientists of the early modern Enlightenment.</p><br>
<p>The historical evolution of climate, vegetation and landscape in southern Europe from prehistoric times to the present is much more complex and underwent various changes. For example, some of the deforestation had already taken place before the Roman age. While in the Roman age large enterprises as the Latifundiums took effective care of forests and agriculture, the largest depopulation effects came with the end of the empire. Some assume that the major deforestation took place in modern times — the later usage patterns were also quite different e.g. in southern and northern Italy. Also, the climate has usually been unstable and showing various ancient and modern "Little Ice Ages", and plant cover accommodated to various extremes and became resilient with regard to various patterns of human activity.</p><br>
<p>Humanisation was therefore not the cause of climate change but followed it.</p><br>
<h3>Natural hazards</h3><br>
<p>The region has a variety of geological hazards which have closely interacted with human activity and land use patterns. Among others, in the eastern Mediterranean, the Thera eruption, dated to the 17th or 16th century BC, caused a large tsunami that some experts hypothesise devastated the Minoan civilisation on the nearby island of Crete, further leading some to believe that this may have been the catastrophe that inspired the Atlantis legend. Mount Vesuvius is the only active volcano on the European mainland, while others as Mount Etna and Stromboli are to be found on neighbouring islands. The region around Vesuvius including the Phlegraean Fields Caldera west of Naples are quite active and constitute the most densely populated volcanic region in the world and eruptive event may occur within decades.</p><br>
<p>Vesuvius itself is regarded as quite dangerous due to a tendency towards explosive (Plinian) eruptions.</p><br>
<p>It is best known for its eruption in AD 79 that led to the burying and destruction of the Roman cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum.</p><br>
<p>The large experience of member states and regional authorities has led to exchange on the international level with cooperation of NGOs, states, regional and municipality authorities and private persons. The Greek–Turkish earthquake diplomacy is a quite positive example of natural hazards leading to improved relations of traditional rivals in the region after earthquakes in İzmir and Athens 1999. The European Union Solidarity Fund (EUSF) was set up to respond to major natural disasters and express European solidarity to disaster-stricken regions within all of Europe.</p><br>
<p>The largest amount of fund requests in the EU is being directed to forest fires, followed by floodings and earthquakes. Forest fires are, whether man made or natural, an often recurring and dangerous hazard in the Mediterranean region. Also, tsunamis are an often underestimated hazard in the region. For example, the 1908 Messina earthquake and tsunami took more than 123,000 lives in Sicily and Calabria and is among the most deadly natural disasters in modern Europe.</p><br>
<h3>Biodiversity</h3><br>
<p>Unlike the vast multidirectional Ocean currents in open Oceans within their respective Oceanic zones; biodiversity in the Mediterranean Sea is that of a stable one due to the subtle but strong locked nature of currents which affects favorably, even the smallest macroscopic type of Volcanic Life Form. The stable Marine ecosystem of the Mediterranean Sea and sea temperature provides a nourishing environment for life in the deep sea to flourish while assuring a balanced Aquatic ecosystem excluded from any external deep oceanic factors.</p><br>
<h4>Invasive species</h4><br>
<p>The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 created the first salt-water passage between the Mediterranean and Red Sea. The Red Sea is higher than the Eastern Mediterranean, so the canal serves as a tidal strait that pours Red Sea water into the Mediterranean. The Bitter Lakes, which are hyper-saline natural lakes that form part of the canal, blocked the migration of Red Sea species into the Mediterranean for many decades, but as the salinity of the lakes gradually equalised with that of the Red Sea, the barrier to migration was removed, and plants and animals from the Red Sea have begun to colonise the Eastern Mediterranean. The Red Sea is generally saltier and more nutrient-poor than the Atlantic, so the Red Sea species have advantages over Atlantic species in the salty and nutrient-poor Eastern Mediterranean. Accordingly, Red Sea species invade the Mediterranean biota, and not vice versa; this phenomenon is known as the Lessepsian migration (after Ferdinand de Lesseps, the French engineer) or Erythrean invasion. The construction of the Aswan High Dam across the Nile River in the 1960s reduced the inflow of freshwater and nutrient-rich silt from the Nile into the Eastern Mediterranean, making conditions there even more like the Red Sea and worsening the impact of the invasive species.</p><br>
<p>Invasive species have become a major component of the Mediterranean ecosystem and have serious impacts on the Mediterranean ecology, endangering many local and endemic Mediterranean species. A first look at some groups of exotic species show that more than 70% of the non-indigenous decapods and about 63% of the exotic fishes occurring in the Mediterranean are of Indo Pacific origin, introduced into the Mediterranean through the Suez Canal. This makes the Canal as the first pathway of arrival of "alien" species into the Mediterranean. The impacts of some lessepsian species have proven to be considerable mainly in the Levantine basin of the Mediterranean, where they are replacing native species and becoming a "familiar sight".</p><br>
<p>According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature definition, as well as Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and Ramsar Convention terminologies, they are alien species, as they are non-native (non-indigenous) to the Mediterranean Sea, and they are outside their normal area of distribution which is the Indo-Pacific region. When these species succeed in establishing populations in the Mediterranean Sea, compete with and begin to replace native species they are "Alien Invasive Species", as they are an agent of change and a threat to the native biodiversity. In the context of CBD, "introduction" refers to the movement by human agency, indirect or direct, of an alien species outside of its natural range (past or present). The Suez Canal, being an artificial (man made) canal, is a human agency. Lessepsian migrants are therefore "introduced" species (indirect, and unintentional). Whatever wording is chosen, they represent a threat to the native Mediterranean biodiversity, because they are non-indigenous to this sea. In recent years, the Egyptian government&#39;s announcement of its intentions to deepen and widen the canal have raised concerns from marine biologists, fearing that such an act will only worsen the invasion of Red Sea species into the Mediterranean, facilitating the crossing of the canal for yet additional species.</p><br>
<h4>Arrival of new tropical Atlantic species</h4><br>
<p>In recent decades, the arrival of exotic species from the tropical Atlantic has become a noticeable feature. Whether this reflects an expansion of the natural area of these species that now enter the Mediterranean through the Gibraltar strait, because of a warming trend of the water caused by global warming; or an extension of the maritime traffic; or is simply the result of a more intense scientific investigation, is still an open question. While not as intense as the "lessepsian" movement, the process may be scientific interest and may therefore warrant increased levels of monitoring.</p><br>
<h3>Sea-level rise</h3><br>
<p>By 2100 the overall level of the Mediterranean could rise between 3 to 61 cm as a result of the effects of climate change. This could have adverse effects on populations across the Mediterranean:</p><br>
<p>Rising sea levels will submerge parts of Malta. Rising sea levels will also mean rising salt water levels in Malta&#39;s groundwater supply and reduce the availability of drinking water.</p><br>
<p>A 30 cm rise in sea level would flood 200 km&sup2; of the Nile Delta, displacing over 500,000 Egyptians.</p><br>
<p>Coastal ecosystems also appear to be threatened by sea level rise, especially enclosed seas such as the Baltic, the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. These seas have only small and primarily east-west movement corridors, which may restrict northward displacement of organisms in these areas. Sea level rise for the next century (2100) could be between 30 cm and 100 cm and temperature shifts of a mere 0.05–0.1 °C in the deep sea are sufficient to induce significant changes in species richness and functional diversity.</p><br>
<h3>Pollution</h3><br>
<p>Pollution in this region has been extremely high in recent years. The United Nations Environment Programme has estimated that 650,000,000 t of sewage, 129,000 t of mineral oil, 60,000 t of mercury, 3,800 t of lead and 36,000 t of phosphates are dumped into the Mediterranean each year. The Barcelona Convention aims to reduce pollution in the Mediterranean Sea and protect and improve the marine environment in the area, thereby contributing to its sustainable development.</p><br>
<p>Many marine species have been almost wiped out because of the seas pollution. One of them is the Mediterranean monk seal which is considered to be among the worlds most endangered marine mammals.</p><br>
<p>The Mediterranean is also plagued by marine debris. A 1994 study of the seabed using trawl nets around the coasts of Spain, France and Italy reported a particularly high mean concentration of debris; an average of 1,935 items per km. Plastic debris accounted for 76%, of which 94% was plastic bags.</p><br>
<h3>Shipping</h3><br>
<p>Some of the worlds busiest shipping routes are in the Mediterranean Sea. It is estimated that approximately 220,000 merchant vessels of more than 100 tonnes cross the Mediterranean Sea each year—about one third of the worlds total merchant shipping. These ships often carry hazardous cargo, which if lost would result in severe damage to the marine environment.</p><br>
<p>The discharge of chemical tank washings and oily wastes also represent a significant source of marine pollution. The Mediterranean Sea constitutes 0.7% of the global water surface and yet receives 17% of global marine oil pollution. It is estimated that every year between 100,000 t and 150,000 t of crude oil are deliberately released into the sea from shipping activities.</p><br>
<p>Approximately 370,000,000 t of oil are transported annually in the Mediterranean Sea (more than 20% of the world total), with around 250–300 oil tankers crossing the sea every day. Accidental oil spills happen frequently with an average of 10 spills per year. A major oil spill could occur at any time in any part of the Mediterranean.</p><br>
<h3>Tourism</h3><br>
<p>The Mediterranean Sea is arguably among the most culturally diverse block basin sea regions in the world, with a unique combination of pleasant climate, beautiful coastline, rich history and various cultures. The Mediterranean region is the most popular tourist destination in the world—attracting approximately one third of the world&#39;s international tourists.</p><br>
<p>Tourism is one of the most important sources of income for many Mediterranean countries regardless of the man-made geopolitical conflicts that harbour coastal nations. In that regard, authorities around the Mediterranean have made it a point to extinguish rising man-made chaotic zones that would affect the economies, societies in neighboring coastal countries, let alone shipping routes. Naval and rescue components in the Mediterranean Sea are considered one of the very best due to the quick intercooperation of various Naval Fleets within proximity of each other. Unlike the vast open Oceans, the closed nature of the Mediterranean Sea provides a much more adaptable naval initiative among the coastal countries to provide effective naval and rescue missions, considered the safest and regardless of any man-made or natural disaster.</p><br>
<p>Tourism also supports small communities in coastal areas and islands by providing alternative sources of income far from urban centers. However, tourism has also played major role in the degradation of the coastal and marine environment. Rapid development has been encouraged by Mediterranean governments to support the large numbers of tourists visiting the region each year. But this has caused serious disturbance to marine habitats such as erosion and pollution in many places along the Mediterranean coasts.</p><br>
<p>Tourism often concentrates in areas of high natural wealth, causing a serious threat to the habitats of endangered Mediterranean species such as sea turtles and monk seals. Reductions in natural wealth may reduce incentives for tourists to visit.</p><br>
<h3>Overfishing</h3><br>
<p>Fish stock levels in the Mediterranean Sea are alarmingly low. The European Environment Agency says that more than 65% of all fish stocks in the region are outside safe biological limits and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation, that some of the most important fisheries—such as albacore and bluefin tuna, hake, marlin, swordfish, red mullet and sea bream—are threatened.</p><br>
<p>There are clear indications that catch size and quality have declined, often dramatically, and in many areas larger and longer-lived species have disappeared entirely from commercial catches.</p><br>
<p>Large open water fish like tuna have been a shared fisheries resource for thousands of years but the stocks are now dangerously low. In 1999, Greenpeace published a report revealing that the amount of bluefin tuna in the Mediterranean had decreased by over 80% in the previous 20 years and government scientists warn that without immediate action the stock will collapse.</p><br>
<h3>Aquaculture</h3><br>
<p>Aquaculture is expanding rapidly—often without proper environmental assessment—and currently accounts for 30% of the fish protein consumed worldwide. The industry claims that farmed seafood lessens the pressure on wild fish stocks, yet many of the farmed species are carnivorous, consuming up to five times their weight in wild fish.</p><br>
<p>Mediterranean coastal areas are already over exposed to human influence, with pristine areas becoming ever scarcer. The aquaculture sector adds to this pressure, requiring areas of high water quality to set up farms. The installation of fish farms close to vulnerable and important habitats such as seagrass meadows is particularly concerning.</p><br>
<p>Mälaren, historically referred to as Lake Malar in English, is the third-largest freshwater lake in Sweden . Its area is 1,140 km² and its greatest depth is 64 m. Mälaren spans 120 kilometers from east to west. The lake drains, from south-west to north-east, into the Baltic Sea through the Södertälje Canal, Hammarbyslussen, Karl Johansslussen and Norrström. The easternmost bay of Mälaren, in central Stockholm, is called Riddarfjärden. The lake is located in Svealand and bounded by the provinces of Uppland, Södermanland, Närke, and Västmanland. The two largest islands in Mälaren are Selaön  and Svartsjölandet .</p><br>
<p>The Viking Age settlements Birka on the island of Björkö and Hovgården on the neighbouring island Adelsö have been an UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1993, as has Drottningholm Palace on the island of Lovön.</p><br>
<p>The barrow of Björn Ironside is on the island of Munsö, within the lake.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The etymological origin of the name Mälaren stems from the Old Norse word mælir appearing in historical records in the 1320s and meaning gravel. The lake was previously known as Lǫgrinn, which is Old Norse for "The Lake".</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>By the end of the last ice age about 11,000 years ago, much of northern Europe and North America was covered by ice sheets up to 3 km thick. At the end of the ice age when the glaciers retreated, the removal of the weight from the depressed land led to a post-glacial rebound. Initially the rebound was rapid, proceeding at about 7.5 cm/year. This phase lasted for about 2,000 years, and took place as the ice was being unloaded. Once deglaciation was complete, uplift slowed to about 2.5 cm/year, and decreased exponentially after that. Today, typical uplift rates are of the order of 1 cm/year or less, and studies suggest that rebound will continue for about another 10,000 years. The total uplift from the end of deglaciation can be up to 400 m.</p><br>
<p>In the Viking Age Mälaren was still a bay of the Baltic Sea, and seagoing vessels could sail up it far into the interior of Sweden. Birka was conveniently near the trade routes through the Södertälje Canal. Due to the post-glacial rebound, Södertälje canal and the mouth of Riddarfjärden bay had become so shallow by about the year 1200 that ships had to unload their cargoes near the entrances, and progressively the bay became a lake. The decline of Birka and the subsequent foundation of Stockholm at the choke point of Riddarfjärden were in part due to the post-glacial rebound changing the topography of the Mälaren basin. The lake&#39;s surface currently averages 0.7 meters above sea level.</p><br>
<h2>Mythology</h2><br>
<p>According to Norse mythology as contained in the thirteenth-century Icelandic work Prose Edda, the lake was created by the goddess Gefjon when she tricked Gylfi, the Swedish king of Gylfaginning. Gylfi promised Gefjon as much land as four oxen could plough in a day and a night, but she used oxen from the land of the giants, and moreover uprooted the land and dragged it into the sea, where it became the island of Zealand. Snorra Edda says that the inlets in the lake correspond to the headlands in Zealand; since this is much more true of Lake Vänern, the myth was probably originally about Vänern, not Mälaren.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>A selection, in alphabetical order:</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>The most common nesting birds on the skerries of Mälaren are also the most common in the Baltic Sea. After a survey in 2005, the ten most common species were found to be common tern, herring gull, black-headed gull, common gull, mallard, tufted duck, Canada goose, common goldeneye, lesser black-backed gull and common sandpiper. White-tailed eagle, greylag goose, barnacle goose, black-throated diver, red-breasted merganser and gadwall are less common, and some of these latter are endangered in the Mälaren area. Since 1994 a subspecies of great cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis, has nested there as well. A 2005 survey tallied 23 breeding colonies with 2178 nests, of which the largest colony had 235 nests. Most experts believe the great cormorant population has peaked and will stabilize at around 2000 nests.</p><br>
<p>One of the characteristic species is the osprey which has one of its strongest presences in Lake Mälaren. The osprey nests in almost all bays of the lake.</p><br>
<p>The Zebra mussel is considered an invasive species and is causing some problems in Lake Mälaren.</p><br>
<h2>Trivia</h2><br>
<p>Mälardrottningen (Lake Mälar Queen) is a poetic name for Stockholm well known in Swedish literature.</p><br>
<p>Utter Inn, an underwater hotel designed by the artist Mikael Genberg, is in the lake.</p><br>
<p>The area around the lake hosted the cycling events at the 1912 Summer Olympics.</p><br>
<p>Mayotte  is an insular department and region of France officially named the Department of Mayotte . It consists of a main island, Grande-Terre , a smaller island, Petite-Terre , and several islets around these two. The archipelago is located in the northern Mozambique Channel in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Southeast Africa, between northwestern Madagascar and northeastern Mozambique. The department status of Mayotte is recent and the region remains the poorest in France. Mayotte is nevertheless much more prosperous than the other countries of the Mozambique Channel, making it a major destination for illegal immigration.</p><br>
<p>Mayotte&#39;s area is 374 km&sup2; and, with its 212,645 people, is very densely populated at 569 per km² (1,473 per sq mi). The biggest city and prefecture is Mamoudzou on Grande-Terre. However, the Dzaoudzi–Pamandzi International Airport is located on the neighbouring island of Petite-Terre. The territory is geographically part of the Comoro Islands. The territory is also known as Maore, the native name of its main island, especially by advocates of its inclusion in the Union of Comoros.</p><br>
<p>The language of the majority is Shimaore, a Bantu language variety closely related to the varieties in the neighbouring Comoros islands. The second most widely spoken native language is Kibushi, a Malagasy language variety most closely related to the Sakalava dialect of Malagasy with influences from Shimaore. The vast majority of the population is Muslim.</p><br>
<p>The island was populated from neighbouring East Africa with later arrival of Arabs, who brought Islam. A sultanate was established in 1500.</p><br>
<p>In the 19th century, Mayotte was conquered by Andriantsoly, former king of Iboina on Madagascar, and later by the neighbouring islands Mohéli and then Anjouan before being purchased by France in 1841. The people of Mayotte voted to remain politically a part of France in the 1974 referendum. Mayotte became an overseas department on 31 March 2011 and became an outermost region of the European Union on 1 January 2014, following a 2009 referendum with an overwhelming result in favour of the department status.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The term Mayotte (or Maore) may refer to all of the departments islands, of which the largest is known as Maore (Grande-Terre) and includes Maores surrounding islands, most notably Pamanzi (Petite-Terre), or only to the largest island.</p><br>
<p>The main island, Grande-Terre (or Maore), geologically the oldest of the Comoro Islands, is 39 km long and 22 km wide, and its highest point is Mount Benara, at 660 m above sea level. Because of the volcanic rock, the soil is relatively rich in some areas. A coral reef encircling much of the island ensures protection for ships and a habitat for fish. Dzaoudzi was the capital of Mayotte (and earlier the capital of all the colonial Comoros) until 1977. It is situated on Petite-Terre (or Pamanzi), which at 10 km&sup2; is the largest of several islets adjacent to Maore.</p><br>
<h2>Environment</h2><br>
<h3>Marine environment</h3><br>
<p>Mayotte is surrounded by a typical tropical coral reef. It consists in a large outer barrier reef, enclosing one of the world&#39;s largest and deepest lagoons, followed by a fringing reef, interrupted by many mangroves. All Mayotte waters are ruled by a National marine Park, and many places are natural reserves.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1500, the Maore or Mawuti (contraction of the Arabic جزيرة الموت Jazīrat al-Mawt – meaning island of death and corrupted to Mayotte in French) sultanate was established on the island. In 1503, Mayotte was observed by Portuguese explorers, but not colonized.</p><br>
<p>In 1832, Mayotte was conquered by Andriantsoly, former king of Iboina on Madagascar; in 1833, it was conquered by the neighbouring sultanate of Mwali (Mohéli island in French). On 19 November 1835, Mayotte was again conquered by the Ndzuwani Sultanate (Anjouan sultanate in French); a governor was installed with the unusual Islamic style of Qadi (from the Arabic قاض which means judge). However, in 1836 it regained its independence under a last local Sultan.</p><br>
<p>Mayotte was purchased by France in 1841. It was the only island in the archipelago that voted in referendums in 1974 and 1976 to retain its link with France and forgo independence (with 63.8% and 99.4% of votes respectively). The Comoros continue to claim the island. A draft 1976 United Nations Security Council resolution recognizing Comorian sovereignty over Mayotte, supported by 11 of the 15 members of the Council, was vetoed by France. It was the last time, that France cast a lone veto in the Council. The United Nations General Assembly adopted a series of resolutions on the issues, under the title "Question of the Comorian Island of Mayotte" up to 1995. Since 1995, the subject of Mayotte has not been discussed by the General Assembly.</p><br>
<p>Mayotte became an overseas department of France in March 2011 in consequence of a 29 March 2009 referendum. The outcome was a 95.5 per cent vote in favour of changing the islands status from a French "overseas community" to become Frances 101st département. Its non-official traditional Islamic law, applied in some aspects of the day-to-day life, will be gradually abolished and replaced by the uniform French civil code. Additionally, French social welfare and taxes apply in Mayotte, though some of each will be brought in gradually. Comoros continues to claim the island, while criticising the French military base there.</p><br>
<h2>Politics</h2><br>
<p>The politics of Mayotte takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic French local government, whereby the President of the Departmental Council is the head of the local assembly, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the French government.</p><br>
<p>Mayotte also sends one deputy to the French National Assembly and two senators to the French Senate.</p><br>
<p>Mayotte is an overseas department and region of France officially named Département de Mayotte. Unlike the other overseas regions and departments of France, Mayotte possesses a single local assembly, officially called the "departmental council" (conseil départemental), which acts both as a regional and departmental council.</p><br>
<p>The situation of Mayotte proved to be awkward for France: while the local population very largely did not want to be independent from France and join the Comoros, some international criticism from post-colonial leftist regimes was heard about Mayotte&#39;s ongoing ties to France. Furthermore, the peculiar local administration of Mayotte, largely ruled by customary Muslim law, would be difficult to integrate into the legal structures of France, not to mention the costs of bringing the standards of living to levels close to those of Metropolitan France. For these reasons, the laws passed by the national parliament had to state specifically that they applied to Mayotte for them to be applicable on Mayotte.</p><br>
<p>The status of Mayotte was changed in 2001 towards one very close to the status of the Departments of France, with the particular designation of departmental collectivity. This change was approved by 73% of voters in a referendum. After the constitutional reform of 2003 it became an overseas collectivity while retaining the title "departmental collectivity" of Mayotte.</p><br>
<p>Mayotte became an overseas department of France (département d&#39;outre-mer, DOM) on 31 March 2011 following the result of the March 2009 Mahoran status referendum, which was overwhelmingly approved by around 95% of voters. Becoming an overseas department will mean it will adopt the same legal and social system as used in the rest of France. This will require abandoning some customary laws, adopting the standard French civil code, and reforming the judiciary, educational, social and fiscal systems, and will take place over a period of about 20 years.</p><br>
<p>Despite its domestic constitutional evolution from the status of an overseas collectivity to that of an overseas department, effectively becoming a full constituent territory within the French Republic, with regards to the European Union, Mayotte remained an Overseas country and territory (OCT) in association with the Union (as per Article 355(2) TFEU) and not a constituent territory of the European Union in the same way as the other four overseas departments. However following a directive of the European Council in December 2013, Mayotte became an outermost region of the European Union on 1 January 2014. This successful agreement between the 27 member states follows a petition made by the French government for Mayotte to become an integral territory of the European Union nonetheless benefiting from the derogation clause applicable in existing Outermost regions, namely Article 349 TFEU, as favoured in a June 2012 European Commission opinion on Mayotte&#39;s European constitutional status.</p><br>
<h2>Administrative divisions</h2><br>
<p>Mayotte is divided into 17 communes. There are also 13 cantons (not shown here). There are no arrondissements.</p><br>
<p>Dzaoudzi</p><br>
<p>Pamandzi</p><br>
<p>Mamoudzou</p><br>
<p>Dembeni</p><br>
<p>Bandrélé</p><br>
<p>Kani-Kéli</p><br>
<p>Bouéni</p><br>
<p>Chirongui</p><br>
<p>Sada</p><br>
<p>Ouangani</p><br>
<p>Chiconi</p><br>
<p>Tsingoni</p><br>
<p>M&#39;Tsangamouji</p><br>
<p>Acoua</p><br>
<p>Mtsamboro</p><br>
<p>Bandraboua</p><br>
<p>Koungou</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>Waterways</p><br>
<p>Ferry between Dzaoudzi and Mamoudzou.</p><br>
<p>Highways:</p><br>
<p>total: 93 kilometres (58 mi)</p><br>
<p>* paved: 72 kilometres (45 mi)</p><br>
<p>* unpaved: 21 kilometres (13 mi)</p><br>
<p>Ports and harbours:</p><br>
<p>Dzaoudzi</p><br>
<p>"Longoni" (Koungou)</p><br>
<p>Airports: Dzaoudzi Pamandzi International Airport - the only airport in Mayotte</p><br>
<p>with paved runways: 1 (2002)</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>The official currency in Mayotte is the euro.</p><br>
<p>In 2013, the GDP of Mayotte at market exchange rates was €1.785 billion. In that same year the GDP per capita of Mayotte at market exchange rates, not at PPP, was €8,200, which was 12.5 times higher than the GDP per capita of the Comoros that year, but only 41% of the GDP per capita of Réunion and 25% of the GDP per capita of Metropolitan France.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>Most of the inhabitants of the island are Comorians. The Comorians are a blend of settlers from many areas: Iranian traders, mainland Africans, Arabs and Malagasy. Comorian communities can also be found in other parts of the Comoros chain as well as in Madagascar.</p><br>
<h3>Religions</h3><br>
<p>The main religion in Mayotte is Islam, with 97% of the population Muslim and 3% Christian.</p><br>
<p>The main religious minority, Roman Catholicism, has no proper diocese but is served, together with the Comoros, by a missionary jurisdiction, the Apostolic Vicariate of Comoros Archipelago.</p><br>
<h3>Languages</h3><br>
<p>French is the only official language of Mayotte. It is the language used for administration and the school system. It is the language most used on television and radio as well as in commercial announcements and billboards. In spite of this, knowledge of French in Mayotte is lower than in any other part of France.</p><br>
<p>The native languages of Mayotte are:</p><br>
<p>Shimaore, a dialect of the Comorian language (a close relative of Swahili)</p><br>
<p>Kibushi, a western dialect of the Malagasy language (the language of Madagascar) heavily influenced by Shimaore and Arabic</p><br>
<p>Kiantalaotsi, another western dialect of the Malagasy language also heavily influenced by Shimaore and Arabic</p><br>
<p>Kibushi is spoken in the south and north-west of Mayotte, while Shimaore is spoken elsewhere.</p><br>
<p>Besides French, other non-indigenous languages are also present in Mayotte:</p><br>
<p>Arabic, essentially learned in the Quranic schools</p><br>
<p>various dialects of the Comorian language essentially imported by immigrants who have arrived in Mayotte since 1974: Shindzwani (the dialect of Anjouan, or Nzwani), Shingazidja (the dialect of Grande Comore, or Ngazidja), and Shimwali (the dialect of Mohéli, or Mwali).</p><br>
<p>Shingazidja and Shimwali on the one hand and Shimaore on the other hand are generally mutually intelligible. Shindzwani and Shimaore are perfectly mutually intelligible.</p><br>
<h4>2007 census</h4><br>
<p>At the 2007 census, 63.2% of people 14 years and older reported that they could speak French (although 87.1% of those whose age was 14 to 19 years old reported that they could speak it, whereas only 19.6% of those aged 65 and older reported that they could speak it). 93.8% of the population whose age was 14 or older reported that they could speak one of the local languages of Mayotte (Shimaore, Kibushi, Kiantalaotsi, or any of the Comorian dialects, which the census included in the local languages). 6.2% of the population aged 14 and older reported that they spoke none of the local languages and could speak only French.</p><br>
<h4>2006 survey</h4><br>
<p>A survey was conducted by the French Ministry of National Education in 2006 among pupils registered in CM2 (equivalent to fifth grade in the US and Year 6 in England and Wales). Questions were asked regarding the languages spoken by the pupils as well as the languages spoken by their parents. According to the survey, the ranking of mother tongues was the following (ranked by number of first language speakers in the total population; note that percentages add up to more than 100% because some people are natively bilingual):</p><br>
<p>Shimaore: 55.1%</p><br>
<p>Shindzwani: 22.3%</p><br>
<p>Kibushi: 13.6%</p><br>
<p>Shingazidja: 7.9%</p><br>
<p>French: 1.4%</p><br>
<p>Shimwali: 0.8%</p><br>
<p>Arabic: 0.4%</p><br>
<p>Kiantalaotsi: 0.2%</p><br>
<p>Other: 0.4%</p><br>
<p>When also counting second language speakers (e.g. someone whose mother tongue is Shimaore but who also speaks French as a second language) then the ranking became:</p><br>
<p>Shimaore: 88.3%</p><br>
<p>French: 56.9%</p><br>
<p>Shindzwani: 35.2%</p><br>
<p>Kibushi: 28.8%</p><br>
<p>Shingazidja: 13.9%</p><br>
<p>Arabic: 10.8%</p><br>
<p>Shimwali: 2.6%</p><br>
<p>Kiantalaotsi: 0.9%</p><br>
<p>Other: 1.2%</p><br>
<p>With the mandatory schooling of children and the economic development both implemented by the French central state, the French language has progressed significantly on Mayotte in recent years. The survey conducted by the Ministry of National Education showed that while first and second language speakers of French represented 56.9% of the population in general, this figure was only 37.7% for the parents of CM2 pupils, but reached 97.0% for the CM2 pupils themselves (whose age is between 10 and 14 in general).</p><br>
<p>Nowadays there are instances of families speaking only French to their children in the hope of helping their social advancement. With French schooling and French language television, many young people turn to French or use many French words when speaking Shimaore and Kibushi, leading some to fear that these native languages of Mayotte could either disappear or become some sort of French-based creole.</p><br>
<h2>Cultural practices</h2><br>
<p>Approximately 26% of the adult population, and five times as many women as men, report entering trance states in which they believe they are possessed by certain identifiable spirits (Djinns) who maintain stable and coherent identities from one possession to the next.</p><br>
<p>Brades</p><br>
<p>Little Bay</p><br>
<p>Montserrat is a Caribbean island—specifically in the Leeward Islands, which is part of the chain known as the Lesser Antilles, in the former British West Indies. It is a British Overseas Territory (BOT). Montserrat measures approximately 16 km in length and 11 km in width, with approximately 40 km of coastline. Montserrat is nicknamed The Emerald Isle of the Caribbean both for its resemblance to coastal Ireland and for the Irish ancestry of many of its inhabitants.</p><br>
<p>On 18 July 1995, the previously dormant Soufrière Hills volcano, in the southern part of the island, became active. Eruptions destroyed Montserrats Georgian era capital city of Plymouth. Between 1995 and 2000, two-thirds of the islands population was forced to flee, primarily to the United Kingdom, leaving fewer than 1,200 people on the island as of 1997 (rising to nearly 5,000 by 2016). The volcanic activity continues, mostly affecting the vicinity of Plymouth, including its docking facilities, and the eastern side of the island around the former W. H. Bramble Airport, the remnants of which were buried by flows from volcanic activity on 11 February 2010.</p><br>
<p>An exclusion zone that extends from the south coast of the island north to parts of the Belham Valley was imposed because of the size of the existing volcanic dome and the resulting potential for pyroclastic activity. Visitors are generally not permitted entry into the exclusion zone, but a view of the destruction of Plymouth can be seen from the top of Garibaldi Hill in Isles Bay. Relatively quiet since early 2010, the volcano continues to be closely monitored by the Montserrat Volcano Observatory. It is the most studied volcano in the world and Montserrat has been regarded as a "Modern Day Pompeii" in the Caribbean.</p><br>
<p>A new town and port are being developed at Little Bay, which is on the northwest coast of the island. While this construction proceeds, the centre of government and businesses is at Brades.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>In 1493, Christopher Columbus named the island Santa María de Montserrate, after the Virgin of Montserrat in the Monastery of Montserrat, on Montserrat mountain, near Barcelona in Catalonia, Spain. "Montserrat" means "serrated mountain" in Catalan.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Archaeological field work in 2012, in Montserrat&#39;s Centre Hills indicated there was an Archaic (pre-Arawak) occupation between 4000 and 2500 BP. Later coastal sites show the presence of the Saladoid culture.</p><br>
<p>In November 1493, Christopher Columbus passed Montserrat in his second voyage, after being told that the island was unoccupied due to raids by the Caribs.</p><br>
<p>A number of Irishmen settled in Montserrat in 1632. The preponderance of Irish in the first wave of European settlers led a leading legal scholar to remark that a "nice question" is whether the original settlers took with them the law of the Kingdom of Ireland insofar as it differed from the law of the Kingdom of England.</p><br>
<p>The Irish being historical allies of the French, especially in their dislike of the English, invited the French to claim the island in 1666. Although no troops were sent by France to maintain control. It was captured shortly afterwards by the English and English control of the island was confirmed under the Treaty of Breda the following year. Despite the seizing by force of the island by the English, the island&#39;s legal status is that of a "colony acquired by settlement".</p><br>
<p>A neo-feudal colony developed amongst the "redlegs". The colonists began to transport Sub-Saharan African slaves for labour, as was common to most Caribbean islands. The colonists built an economy based on the production of sugar, rum, arrowroot and sea island cotton, cultivated on large plantations manned by slave labour. By the late 18th century, numerous plantations had been developed on the island. Many Irish continued to be transported to the island, to work as indentured servants; some were exiled during the English Cromwellian conquest of Ireland.</p><br>
<h3>18th century</h3><br>
<p>On 17 March 1768, slaves rebelled but failed to achieve freedom. The people of Montserrat celebrate St Patrick&#39;s Day as a public holiday due to the slave revolt. Festivities held that week commemorate the culture of Montserrat in song, dance, food and traditional costumes.</p><br>
<p>In 1782, during the American Revolutionary War, as America&#39;s first ally, France captured Montserrat in their war of support of the Americans. The French, not intending on truly colonizing the island, then agreed to return the island to the Great Britain under the 1783 Treaty of Paris.</p><br>
<h3>Irish language in Montserrat</h3><br>
<p>The Irish constituted the largest proportion of the white population from the founding of the colony in 1628. Many were indentured labourers; others were merchants or plantation owners. The geographer Thomas Jeffrey claimed in The West India Atlas (1780) that the majority of those on Montserrat were either Irish or of Irish descent, “so that the use of the Irish language is preserved on the island, even among the Negroes”.</p><br>
<p>African slaves and Irish colonists of all classes were in constant contact, with sexual relationships being common and a population of mixed descent appearing as a consequence. The Irish were also prominent in Caribbean commerce, with their merchants importing Irish goods such as beef, pork, butter and herring, and also importing slaves.</p><br>
<p>There is indirect evidence that the use of the Irish language continued in Montserrat until at least the middle of the nineteenth century. The Kilkenny diarist and Irish scholar Amhlaoibh Ó Súilleabháin noted in 1831 that he had heard that Irish was still spoken in Montserrat by both black and white inhabitants. A letter by W.F. Butler in The Atheneum (15 July 1905) quotes an account by a Cork civil servant, C. Cremen, of what he had heard from a retired sailor called John O’Donovan, a fluent Irish speaker:</p><br>
<p>The British phonetician John C. Wells conducted research into speech in Montserrat in 1977-78 (which included also Montserratians resident in London). He found media claims that Irish speech, whether Anglo-Irish or Irish Gaelic, influenced contemporary Montserratian speech were largely exaggerated. He found little in phonology, morphology or syntax that could be attributed to Irish influence, and only a small number of Irish words in use, with one case being minnseach for goat.</p><br>
<h3>New crops and politics</h3><br>
<p>Britain abolished slavery in Montserrat and its other Caribbean territories effective August 1834.</p><br>
<p>During the nineteenth century, falling sugar-prices had an adverse effect on the island&#39;s economy, as Brazil and other nations competed in the trade.</p><br>
<p>In 1857, the British philanthropist Joseph Sturge bought a sugar estate to prove it was economically viable to employ paid labour rather than slaves. Numerous members of the Sturge family bought additional land. In 1869 the family established the Montserrat Company Limited and planted Key lime trees, started the commercial production of lime juice, set up a school, and sold parcels of land to the inhabitants of the island. Much of Montserrat came to be owned by smallholders.</p><br>
<p>From 1871 to 1958, Montserrat was administered as part of the federal crown colony of the British Leeward Islands, becoming a province of the short-lived West Indies Federation from 1958 to 1962.</p><br>
<p>In 1979, The Beatles producer George Martin, opened AIR Studios Montserrat. The island attracted world-famous musicians, who came to record in the peaceful and lush tropical surroundings of Montserrat.</p><br>
<p>In the early hours of 17 September 1989, Hurricane Hugo, passed the island as a Category 4 hurricane. It damaged more than 90% of the structures on the island. AIR Studios Montserrat closed, and the tourist economy was virtually wiped out.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The island of Montserrat is approximately 480 km east-southeast of Puerto Rico and 48 km southwest of Antigua. The island lies north-northwest of Suriname and French Guiana (France). It comprises 104 km&sup2; and is gradually increasing owing to the buildup of volcanic deposits on the southeast coast. The island is 16 km long and 11 km wide, with rock cliffs rising 15 to 30 m above the sea and a number of smooth bottomed sandy beaches scattered among coves on the western (Caribbean) side of the island.</p><br>
<p>Montserrat has two islets, Virgin and Statue Rock.</p><br>
<h3>Volcano and exclusion zone</h3><br>
<p>In July 1995, Montserrats Soufrière Hills volcano, dormant for centuries, erupted and soon buried the islands capital, Plymouth, in more than 12 m of mud, destroyed its airport and docking facilities, and rendered the southern part of the island, now termed the exclusion zone, uninhabitable and not safe for travel. The southern part of the island was evacuated and visits are severely restricted. The exclusion zone also includes two sea areas adjacent to the land areas of most volcanic activity.</p><br>
<p>After the destruction of Plymouth and disruption of the economy, more than half of the population left the island, which also lacked housing. During the late 1990s, additional eruptions occurred. On 25 June 1997, a pyroclastic flow travelled down Mosquito Ghaut. This pyroclastic surge could not be restrained by the ghaut and spilled out of it, killing 19 people who were in the (officially evacuated) Streatham village area. Several others in the area suffered severe burns.</p><br>
<p>For a number of years in the early 2000s, the volcano&#39;s activity consisted mostly of infrequent ventings of ash into the uninhabited areas in the south. The ash falls occasionally extended into the northern and western parts of the island. In the most recent period of increased activity at the Soufrière Hills volcano, from November 2009 through February 2010, ash vented and there was a vulcanian explosion that sent pyroclastic flows down several sides of the mountain. Travel into parts of the exclusion zone is occasionally allowed, though only by a licence from the Royal Montserrat Police Force.</p><br>
<p>The northern part of Montserrat has largely been unaffected by volcanic activity, and remains lush and green. In February 2005, The Princess Royal officially opened what is now called the John A. Osborne Airport in the north. Since 2011, it handles several flights daily operated by Fly Montserrat Airways. Docking facilities are in place at Little Bay, where the new capital town is being constructed; the new government centre is at Brades, a short distance away.</p><br>
<p>In recognition of the disaster, in 1998, the people of Montserrat were granted full residency rights in the United Kingdom, allowing them to migrate if they chose. British citizenship was granted in 2002.</p><br>
<h3>Wildlife</h3><br>
<p>Montserrat, like many isolated islands, is home to rare, endemic plant and animal species. Work undertaken by the Montserrat National Trust in collaboration with the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew has centred on the conservation of pribby (Rondeletia buxifolia) in the Centre Hills region. Until 2006, this species was known only from one book about the vegetation of Montserrat. In 2006, conservationists also rescued several plants of the endangered Montserrat orchid (Epidendrum montserratense) from dead trees on the island and installed them in the security of the island&#39;s botanic garden.</p><br>
<p>Montserrat is also home to the critically endangered Giant Ditch Frog (Leptodactylus fallax), known locally as the Mountain Chicken, found only in Montserrat and Dominica. The species has undergone catastrophic declines due to the amphibian disease Chytridiomycosis and the volcanic eruption in 1997. Experts from Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust have been working with the Montserrat Department of Environment to conserve the frog in-situ in a project called "Saving the Mountain Chicken", and an ex-situ captive breeding population has been set up in partnership with Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust, Zoological Society of London, North of England Zoological Society, Parken Zoo and the Governments of Montserrat and Dominica. Releases from this programme have already taken place in a hope to increase the numbers of the frog and reduce extinction risk from Chytridiomycosis.</p><br>
<p>The national bird is the endemic Montserrat oriole (Icterus oberi). The IUCN Red List classifies it as Critically Endangered. Captive populations are held in several zoos in the UK including: Chester Zoo, Zoological Society of London, Jersey Zoo and Royal Zoological Society of Scotland.</p><br>
<p>The Montserrat galliwasp (Diploglossus montisserrati), a type of lizard, is endemic to Montserrat and is listed on the IUCN Red List as Critically Endangered. A species action plan has been developed for this species.</p><br>
<p>In 2005, a biodiversity assessment for the Centre Hills was conducted. To support the work of local conservationists, a team of international partners, including Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Royal Society for the Protection of Birds and Montana State University, carried out extensive surveys and collected biological data. Researchers from Montana State University found that the invertebrate fauna was particularly rich on the island. The report found that the number of invertebrate species known to occur in Montserrat is 1,241. The number of known beetle species is 718 species from 63 families. It is estimated that 120 invertebrates are endemic to Montserrat.</p><br>
<p>Montserrat is known for its coral reefs and its caves along the shore. These caves house many species of bats, and efforts are underway to monitor and protect the ten species of bats from extinction.</p><br>
<p>A species of tarantula simply called the Montserrat Tarantula is native to the island. It was first bred in captivity at the Chester Zoo in August 2016.</p><br>
<h2>Politics</h2><br>
<p>Montserrat is an internally self-governing overseas territory of the United Kingdom. The United Nations Committee on Decolonization includes Montserrat on the United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories. Executive power is exercised by the government, whereby the Premier is the head of government. The Premier is appointed by the Governor from among the members of the Legislative Assembly which consists of nine elected members. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Legislative Assembly. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Military defence is the responsibility of the United Kingdom.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>From 1979 to 1989, Montserrat was home to a branch of George Martins AIR Studios, making the island popular with musicians who often went there to record while taking advantage of the islands climate and beautiful surroundings; the studio closed as a result of Hurricane Hugo.</p><br>
<p>Since the devastations of Hurricane Hugo and the eruption of the Soufrière Hills volcano, the Montserratian economy has been effectively halted. Export businesses based in Montserrat deal primarily in the selling and shipping of aggregate for construction. Imports include virtually everything available for sale on the island.</p><br>
<p>The island&#39;s operating budget is largely supplied by the British government and administered through the Department for International Development (DFID) amounting to approximately £25 million per year. Additional amounts are secured through income and property taxes, licence and other fees as well as customs duties levied on imported goods.</p><br>
<p>The limited economy of Montserrat, coupled with a population under 5,000, many living in shelters and shacks without utilities, only consumes 1.7 MW of electric power, produced by five diesel generators. Two exploratory geothermal wells have found good resources and the pad for a third geothermal well was prepared in 2016. Together the geothermal wells are expected to produce more power than the island requires.</p><br>
<h2>Military</h2><br>
<p>As a British Overseas Territory (BOT), defence of Montserrat remains the responsibility of the United Kingdom. Montserrat is one of the fourteen BOTs that maintains its own military unit, the Royal Montserrat Defence Force. There is also a cadet corps for secondary school students.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>The island had a population of 5,879 (according to a 2008 estimate). An estimated 8,000 refugees left the island (primarily to the UK) following the resumption of volcanic activity in July 1995; the population was 13,000 in 1994. The 2011 Montserrat census indicated a population of 4,922. In early 2016, the estimated population had reached nearly 5000 primarily due to immigration from other islands.</p><br>
<p>Age structure:</p><br>
<p>0–14 years: 23.4% (male 1,062; female 1,041)</p><br>
<p>15–64 years: 65.3% (male 2,805; female 3,066)</p><br>
<p>65 years and over: 11.3% (male 537; female 484) (2003 est.)</p><br>
<p>The median age of the population was 28.1 as of 2002 and the sex ratio was 0.96 males/female as of 2000.</p><br>
<p>The population growth rate is 6.9% (2008 est.), with a birth rate of 17.57 births/1,000 population, death rate of 7.34 deaths/1,000 population (2003 est.), and net migration rate of 195.35/1,000 population (2000 est.) There is an infant mortality rate of 7.77 deaths/1,000 live births (2003 est.). The life expectancy at birth is 78.36 years: 76.24 for males and 80.59 for females (2003 est.). The total fertility rate is 1.8 children born/woman (2003 est.).</p><br>
<h3>Ethnic groups</h3><br>
<p>Residents of Montserrat are known as Montserratians. The population consists of a number of ethnic groups, including Black (88.4%), White, Dual Heritage and Creole. The island&#39;s population is mainly a mix of Irish and Africans with other minorities.</p><br>
<p>The population is predominantly, but not exclusively, of mixed African-Irish descent. It is not known with certainty how many African slaves and indentured Irish labourers were brought to the West Indies, though according to one estimate some 60,000 Irish were "Barbadosed" by Oliver Cromwell, some of whom would have arrived in Montserrat.</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>Education in Montserrat is compulsory for children between the ages of 5 and 14, and free up to the age of 17. The only secondary school (pre-16 years of age) on the island is the Montserrat Secondary School (MSS) in Salem. Montserrat Community College (MCC) is a community college (post-16 and tertiary educational institution) in Salem, The University of the West Indies maintains its Montserrat Open Campus. University of Science, Arts and Technology is a private medical school in Olveston.</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<p>In 1979, George Martin, an English record producer, build a recording studio on the island called AIR Studios Montserrat. For more than a decade, AIR Montserrat played host to recording sessions by many well known rock musicians, including Dire Straits, Elton John, Michael Jackson and The Rolling Stones. In 1989, Hurricane Hugo destroyed the studios.</p><br>
<p>After the volcanic eruptions of 1995 through 1997, and until his death in 2016, George Martin raised funds to help the victims and families on the island. The first event was a star-studded event at London&#39;s Royal Albert Hall in September 1997 (Music for Montserrat) featuring many artists who had previously recorded on the island including Paul McCartney, Mark Knopfler, Elton John, Sting, Eric Clapton and Midge Ure. All the proceeds from the show went towards short-term relief for the islanders.</p><br>
<p>Martin&#39;s second major initiative was to release five hundred limited edition lithographs of his score for the Beatles song "Yesterday". Complete with mistakes and tea stains, the lithographs are numbered and signed by Paul McCartney and Martin. The lithograph sale raised more than US$1.4 million which helped fund the building of a new cultural and community centre for Montserrat and provided a much needed focal point to help the re-generation of the island.</p><br>
<p>Many albums of note were recorded at AIR Studios, including Dire Straits Brothers in Arms; Duran Durans Seven and the Ragged Tiger, the Polices Ghost in the Machine and Synchronicity (the video for "Every Little Thing She Does Is Magic" was filmed in Montserrat, but the song ironically was the only one on Ghost in the Machine not recorded there), and Jimmy Buffetts Volcano (named for Soufrière Hills). After sustaining severe damage from Hurricane Hugo in 1989, the studio is now a ruin. Ian Anderson (of Jethro Tull) recorded the song "Montserrat" on The Secret Language of Birds in tribute to the volcanic difficulties and feeling among residents of being abandoned by the UK government.</p><br>
<h3>Media</h3><br>
<p>Montserrat has one national radio station, ZJB. The station offers a wide selection of music and news within the island and also on the internet for Montserratians living overseas.</p><br>
<p>Notable shows include the Morning Show with Basil Chambers and Rose Willock&#39;s Cultural Show.</p><br>
<h3>Cuisine</h3><br>
<p>Montserrat&#39;s national dish is goat water, a thick goat meat stew served with crusty bread rolls. Montserrat cuisine resembles the general British and Caribbean cuisines, as it is situated in the Caribbean zone and it is a British territory. The cuisine includes a wide range of light meats, like fish, seafood and chicken, which are mostly grilled or roasted. Being a fusion of numerous cultures, such as Spanish, French, African, Indian and Amerindian, the Caribbean cuisine is unique and complex. More sophisticated meals include the Montserrat jerk shrimp, with rum, cinnamon bananas and cranberry. In other more rural areas, people prefer to eat homemade food, like the traditional mahi mahi and local breads.</p><br>
<h3>Yachting</h3><br>
<p>Montserrat is home to the Montserrat Yachting Association.</p><br>
<h2>Sports</h2><br>
<h3>Athletics</h3><br>
<p>Montserrat has competed in every Commonwealth Games since 1994.</p><br>
<h3>Basketball</h3><br>
<p>Basketball is growing in popularity in Montserrat with the country now setting up their own basketball league. The league contains six teams, which are the Look-Out Shooters, Davy Hill Ras Valley, Cudjoe Head Renegades, St. Peters Hilltop, Salem Jammers and MSS School Warriors. They have also built a new 800 seater complex which cost $1.5 million.</p><br>
<h3>Cricket</h3><br>
<p>Cricket is a popular sport in Montserrat. Players from Montserrat are eligible to play for the West Indies cricket team. Jim Allen was the first to play for the West Indies and he represented the World Series Cricket West Indians. No other player from Montserrat had gone on to represent the West Indies until Lionel Baker made his One Day International debut against Pakistan in November 2008.</p><br>
<p>The Montserrat cricket team forms a part of the Leeward Islands cricket team in regional domestic cricket, however it plays as a separate entity in minor regional matches, as well having previously played Twenty20 cricket in the Stanford 20/20. Two grounds on the island have held first-class matches for the Leeward Islands, the first and most historic was Sturge Park in Plymouth, which had been in use since the 1920s. This was destroyed in 1997, by the volcanic eruption. A new ground, the Salem Oval, was constructed and opened in 2000. This has also held first-class cricket. A second ground has been constructed at Little Bay.</p><br>
<h3>Football</h3><br>
<p>Montserrat has its own FIFA affiliated football team, and has competed in the World Cup qualifiers five times but failed to advance to the finals from 2002 to 2018. A field for the team was built near the airport by FIFA. In 2002, the team competed in a friendly match with the second-lowest-ranked team in FIFA at that time, Bhutan, in The Other Final, the same day as the final of the 2002 World Cup. Bhutan won 4–0. Montserrat has failed to qualify for any FIFA World Cup. They have also failed to ever qualify for the Gold Cup and Caribbean Cup. The current national team relies mostly on the diaspora in England and in the last WCQ against Curaçao nearly all their squad played and lived in England.</p><br>
<h3>Surfing</h3><br>
<p>Surfing was introduced by two American brothers in 1980, Carrll and Gary Robilotta. They were also responsible for naming the surfing spots on the island. Carrll wrote for the surfing newsletter The Surf Report, which was used by surfers around the globe. They both made Montserrat their home for 12 years.</p><br>
<h2>Parishes</h2><br>
<p>Montserrat is divided into three parishes:</p><br>
<p>Saint Peter Parish</p><br>
<p>Saint Anthony Parish</p><br>
<p>Saint Georges Parish</p><br>
<p>The locations of settlements on the island have been vastly changed since the volcanic activity began. Only Saint Peter Parish in the northwest of the island is now inhabited, with a population of between 4,000 and 6,000. The other two parishes are still too dangerous to inhabit; the volcano is still active in 2013.</p><br>
<h2>Settlements</h2><br>
<p>Settlements known to be within the exclusion cannot be accessed and are no longer habitable. See also List of settlements abandoned after the 1997 Soufrière Hills eruption.</p><br>
<h3>Settlements in the safe zone</h3><br>
<p>Baker Hill</p><br>
<p>Banks</p><br>
<p>Barzeys</p><br>
<p>Blakes</p><br>
<p>Brades</p><br>
<p>Carr&#39;s Bay</p><br>
<p>Cavalla Hill</p><br>
<p>Cheap End</p><br>
<p>Cudjoe Head</p><br>
<p>Davy Hill</p><br>
<p>Dick Hill</p><br>
<p>Drummonds</p><br>
<p>Flemmings</p><br>
<p>Fogarty</p><br>
<p>Frith</p><br>
<p>Garibaldi Hill</p><br>
<p>Geralds</p><br>
<p>Hope</p><br>
<p>Jack Boy Hill</p><br>
<p>Judy Piece</p><br>
<p>Katy Hill</p><br>
<p>Lawyers Mountain</p><br>
<p>Little Bay</p><br>
<p>Lookout</p><br>
<p>Manjack</p><br>
<p>Mongo Hill</p><br>
<p>New Windward Estate</p><br>
<p>Nixons</p><br>
<p>Old Towne</p><br>
<p>Olveston</p><br>
<p>Salem</p><br>
<p>Shinlands</p><br>
<p>St. John&#39;s</p><br>
<p>St. Peter&#39;s</p><br>
<p>Sweeney&#39;s</p><br>
<p>Woodlands</p><br>
<h3>Abandoned settlements in the exclusion zone</h3><br>
<p>Settlements in italic have been destroyed by pyroclastic flows since the 1997 eruption. Others have been evacuated or destroyed since 1995.</p><br>
<p>Amersham</p><br>
<p>Beech Hill</p><br>
<p>Bethel</p><br>
<p>Bramble</p><br>
<p>Bransby</p><br>
<p>Bugby Hole</p><br>
<p>Cork Hill</p><br>
<p>Dagenham</p><br>
<p>Delvins</p><br>
<p>Dyers</p><br>
<p>Elberton</p><br>
<p>Farm</p><br>
<p>Fairfield</p><br>
<p>Fairy Walk</p><br>
<p>Farrells</p><br>
<p>Farells Yard</p><br>
<p>Ffryes</p><br>
<p>Fox&#39;s Bay</p><br>
<p>Gages</p><br>
<p>Gallways Estate</p><br>
<p>Gringoes</p><br>
<p>Gun Hill</p><br>
<p>Happy Hill</p><br>
<p>Harris</p><br>
<p>Harris Lookout</p><br>
<p>Hermitage</p><br>
<p>Hodge&#39;s Hill</p><br>
<p>Jubilee</p><br>
<p>Kinsale</p><br>
<p>Lees</p><br>
<p>Locust Valley</p><br>
<p>Long Ground</p><br>
<p>Molyneux</p><br>
<p>Morris</p><br>
<p>Parsons</p><br>
<p>Plymouth</p><br>
<p>Richmond</p><br>
<p>Richmond Hill</p><br>
<p>Roche&#39;s Yard</p><br>
<p>Robuscus Mt</p><br>
<p>Shooter&#39;s Hill</p><br>
<p>Soufrière</p><br>
<p>Spanish Point</p><br>
<p>St. George&#39;s Hill</p><br>
<p>St. Patrick&#39;s</p><br>
<p>Streatham</p><br>
<p>Trants</p><br>
<p>Trials</p><br>
<p>Tuitts</p><br>
<p>Victoria</p><br>
<p>Webbs</p><br>
<p>Weekes</p><br>
<p>White&#39;s</p><br>
<p>Windy Hill</p><br>
<h2>Notable Montserratians</h2><br>
<p>Jim Allen, former cricketer who represented the World Series Cricket West Indians.</p><br>
<p>Jennette Arnold, the first Montserratian elected as a Member of the London Assembly, who served four terms as Chair of the Assembly.</p><br>
<p>Lionel Baker, the first Montserratian to represent the West Indies in international cricket.</p><br>
<p>Alphonsus "Arrow" Cassell, musician known for his soca song "Hot Hot Hot", which sold over four million copies.</p><br>
<p>Vladimir Farrell, association footballer.</p><br>
<p>Howard A. Fergus, author, poet and three time acting governor of Montserrat.</p><br>
<p>Patricia Griffin (1907-1986) pioneer nurse and volunteer social worker, honored on a 2006 series of stamps recognizing notable citizens</p><br>
<p>George Irish, writer, human rights activist.</p><br>
<p>E. A. Markham, poet and author.</p><br>
<p>Dean Mason, association footballer.</p><br>
<p>Shane Ryan, writer, human rights activist.</p><br>
<p>M. P. Shiel, writer.</p><br>
<p>Lyle Taylor, association footballer.</p><br>
<p>Maizie Williams, member of pop group Boney M.</p><br>
<p>The Marañón River  is the principal or mainstem source of the Amazon River, arising about 160 km to the northeast of Lima, Peru, and flowing through a deeply eroded Andean valley in a northwesterly direction, along the eastern base of the Cordillera of the Andes, as far as 5° 36′ southern latitude; from where it makes a great bend to the northeast, and cuts through the jungle Andes, until at the Pongo de Manseriche it flows into the flat Amazon basin. Although historically, the term "Marañon River" often was applied to the river all the way to the Atlantic Ocean, nowadays the Marañon River is generally thought to end at the confluence with the Ucayali River, after which most cartographers label the ensuing waterway the Amazon River.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Marañón River is Peru&#39;s second longest river according to a 2005 statistical publication by the Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática.</p><br>
<h2>Source of the Amazon</h2><br>
<p>The Marañon River was considered the source of the Amazon River starting with the 1707 map published by Padre Samuel Fritz, who indicated the great river “has its source on the southern shore of a lake that is called Lauricocha, near Huánuco." Fritz’ reasoning was based on the fact that the Marañon River is the largest river branch one encounters when journeying upstream, something clearly evident on his map. For most of the 18th–19th centuries and into the 20th century, the Marañon River was generally considered the source of the Amazon. The Marañon River continues to claim the title of the "mainstem source" or "hydrological source" of the Amazon due to its contribution of the highest annual discharge rates.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>On topographic maps, the Marañon River nominally begins by the town Rondos at the junction of the Lawriqucha and the Nupe Rivers, but its true source lies up one of these branches.</p><br>
<p>The Lawriqucha River is the longer of the two, and emerges from a series of lakes, starting at lake Niño Qucha (Niño Cocha) and ending at lake Lawriqucha.</p><br>
<p>The Nupe River emerges from lake Qarwaqucha near Mt. Yerupaja. Downstream of Rondos, the Marañon River flows as a small stream until other tributaries join it, the most important being the Urqumayu (Vizcarra), Puchka, Yanamayu, Crisnejas, Silaco and Chamaya. These together make the Marañon a major river with higher average flow than the Colorado River through Grand Canyon.</p><br>
<p>Just before entering the jungle, the Utcubamba and Chinchipe Rivers join the Marañon, usually more than doubling the flow. In the Andean jungle area, additional major tributaries join, including the Chiriaco, Cenepa, Nieva, and Santiago Rivers. This is an area inhabited by the Aguaruna people. After leaving the Andes, the Marañon is joined by additional major tributaries, including the Morona, Pastaza, Huallaga, Pacaya-Samiria, and Tigre Rivers. By the time it reaches the gauging station of San Regis before the Ucayali confluence, the Marañon has nearly the same average discharge rate as the Mississippi River at its mouth.</p><br>
<p>The initial section of the Marañon contains a plethora of pongos, which are gorges in the jungle areas often with difficult rapids.</p><br>
<p>The Pongo de Manseriche is the final pongo on the Marañon located just before the river enters the flat Amazon basin. It is 5 km long and located between the confluence with the Rio Santiago, and the village of Borja. According to Captain Carbajal, who attempted ascent through the Pongo de Manseriche in the little steamer "Napo," in 1868, it is a vast rent in the Andes about 600 m (2000 ft) deep, narrowing in places to a width of only 30 m (100 ft), the precipices "seeming to close in at the top." Through this canyon the Marañón leaps along, at times, at the rate of 20 km/h (12 miles an hour). The pongo is known for wrecking many ships and many drownings.</p><br>
<p>Downstream of the Pongo de Manseriche the river often has islands, and there is usually nothing visible from its low banks but an immense forest-covered plain known as the selva baja ("low jungle") or Peruvian Amazonia. It is home to indigenous peoples such as the Urarina of the Chambira Basin, the Candoshi, and the Cocama-Cocamilla peoples.</p><br>
<p>A 552 km (343 mile) section of the Marañon River between Puente Copuma (Puchka confluence) and Corral Quemado is a class IV raftable river that is similar in many ways to the Grand Canyon of the United States and has been labeled the "Grand Canyon of the Amazon". Most of this section of the river is in a canyon that is up to 3000 m deep on both sides – over twice the depth of the Colorado&#39;s Grand Canyon. It is in dry desert-like terrain, much of which receives only 250–350 mm/rain per year (10–14"/year) with parts such as from Balsas to Jaén known as the hottest "infierno" area of Peru. The Marañon Grand Canyon section flows by the village of Calemar, where Peruvian writer Ciro Alegría based one of his most important novels: La serpiente de oro (1935).</p><br>
<h2>Historical journeys</h2><br>
<h3>La Condamine, 1743</h3><br>
<p>One of the first popular descents of the Marañon River occurred In 1743 the Frenchman Charles Marie de La Condamine, who journeyed from the Chinchipe confluence all the way to the Atlantic Ocean. La Condamine did not descend the initial section of the Marañon by boat due to the plethora of pongos. From where he began his boating descent at the Chiriaco confluence, La Condamine still had to confront several pongos, including the Pongo de Huaracayo (or Guaracayo) and the Pongo de Manseriche.</p><br>
<h3>The Grand Canyon of the Amazon</h3><br>
<p>The upper Marañon River has seen a number of descents. An attempt to paddle the river was made by Herbert Rittlinger in 1936. Sebastian Snow was an adventurer who journeyed down most of the river by trekking to Chiriaco River starting at the source near Lake Niñacocha.</p><br>
<p>In 1976 and/or 1977 Laszlo Berty descended the section from Chagual to the jungle in raft. In 1977, a group composed of Tom Fisher, Steve Gaskill, Ellen Toll, and John Wasson spent over a month descending the river from Rondos to Nazareth with kayaks and a raft. In 2004, Tim Biggs and companions kayaked the entire river from the Nupe River to Iquitos. In 2012, Rocky Contos descended the entire river with various companions along the way.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeology</h2><br>
<p>The Chachapoya culture flourished in the basin of Maranon River. Gran Pajatén is an archaeological site of the Chachapoya located in the Andean cloud forests of Peru between the Marañon and Huallaga rivers. It is on the border of the La Libertad region and the San Martín region, and it was active in 200 BC. Los Pinchudos is an elaborate Chachapoya tomb complex.</p><br>
<p>The Recuay culture was a highland culture of Peru along the river from 200 BC-600 AD.</p><br>
<p>Chavín de Huantar was an ancient city located at the headwaters of the Marañón River.</p><br>
<p>Santa Ana (La Florida) is an important archaeological site in Ecuador, going back as early as 3,500 BC. It is located on the small Palanda River that flows into Mayo-Chinchipe river, and eventually into the Rio Marañon.</p><br>
<h2>Hydroelectric dams</h2><br>
<p>The Marañon River may supply 20 hydroelectric mega-dams planned in the Andes, and it has been speculated that most of the power is destined for export to Brazil, Chile or Ecuador. Dam survey crews have drafted construction blueprints and the Environmental Impact Statements have been available since November 2009 for the Veracruz dam and since November 2011 the Chadin2 dam.</p><br>
<p>A 2011 law stated "national demand" for the hydroelectric energy, while in 2013 Peruvian president Ollanta Humala explicitly made a connection with mining; the energy is to supply mines in the Cajamarca Region, La Libertad, Ancash Region and Piura Region. Construction of the 406 MW dam in Chaglla District started in 2012.</p><br>
<h3>Concerns</h3><br>
<p>Opposition arose because the dams are expected to disrupt the major source of the Amazon, alter normal silt deposition into the lower river, damage habitat and migration patterns for fish and other aquatic life, displace thousands of residents along the river, and damage a national treasure "at least as nice as the Grand Canyon in the USA". Residents have launched efforts to halt the dams along the river with conservation groups such as SierraRios and International Rivers.</p><br>
<p>Potential ecological impacts of 151 new dams greater than 2 MW on five of the six major Andean tributaries of the Amazon over the next 20 years are estimated to be high, including the first major break in connectivity between Andean headwaters and lowland Amazon and deforestation due to infrastructure.</p><br>
<p>Aoraki / Mount Cook is the highest mountain in New Zealand. Its height since 2014 is listed as 3,724 m, down from 3,764 m before December 1991, due to a rockslide and subsequent erosion. It lies in the Southern Alps, the mountain range which runs the length of the South Island. A popular tourist destination, it is also a favourite challenge for mountain climbers. Aoraki / Mount Cook consists of three summits, from South to North the Low Peak , Middle Peak  and High Peak. The summits lie slightly south and east of the main divide of the Southern Alps, with the Tasman Glacier to the east and the Hooker Glacier to the southwest.</p><br>
<p>There was a large rock fall in 1991 that turned the summit into a knife-edge ridge and reduced the height of the mountain by an estimated 10 m or so at that time. A/MC was measured in 2013 to be 3724 m, which is 30 m down from its pre-1991 rock-fall measurement.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>The mountain is in the Aoraki/Mount Cook National Park, in the Canterbury region. The park was established in 1953 and along with Westland National Park, Mount Aspiring National Park and Fiordland National Park forms one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The park contains more than 140 peaks standing over 2,000 m and 72 named glaciers, which cover 40 percent of its 700 km&sup2;.</p><br>
<p>The peak is located at the northern end of the Kirikirikatata / Mount Cook Range, where it meets with the main spine of the Main Divide, forming a massif between the Hooker Valley to the southwest and the Tasman Valley east of the mountain. These two valleys provide the closest easily accessible view points of Aoraki / Mount Cook. A lookout point at the end of the Hooker Valley Track located only 10 km from the peak has views of the entire mountainside.</p><br>
<p>The settlement of Mount Cook Village, also referred to as "Aoraki / Mount Cook", is a tourist centre and base camp for the mountain. It is 7 km from the end of the Tasman Glacier and 15 km south of Aoraki / Mount Cook&#39;s summit.</p><br>
<p>On clear days, Aoraki / Mount Cook is visible from the West Coast as far north as Greymouth, some 150 kilometres away, and from most of State Highway 80 along Lake Pukaki and State Highway 6 south of Lake Pukaki. The near horizontal ridge connecting the mountain&#39;s three summits forms a distinctive blocky shape when viewed from an eastern or western direction.</p><br>
<p>Another popular view point is from Lake Matheson on the West Coast, described as the "view of views", where on calm days, the peaks of Aoraki / Mount Cook and Mt Tasman are reflected in Lake Matheson.</p><br>
<h2>Local climate</h2><br>
<p>Aoraki / Mount Cook receives substantial orographic precipitation throughout the year, as breezy, moisture-laden westerly winds dominate all year-round, bringing rainclouds from the Tasman Sea with them.</p><br>
<p>Annual precipitation around the mountain ranges varies greatly as the local climate is dominated by the eastward movement of depressions and anticyclones from across the Tasman Sea. The Aoraki / Mount Cook massif is a major obstacle to the prevailing westerly winds as they push depressions and associated cold fronts of moist air from the subtropics in the northwest against the mountain range. As the air rises towards the peaks, it expands and cools, and forms clouds. Rain and snowfall is often heaviest around the 1,200 m level and can last for several days if the front is slow-moving.</p><br>
<p>As a result of the local weather patterns, the western slopes of Aoraki / Mount Cook can receive well over 10,000 mm of annual precipitation, whereas the nearby Mount Cook Village, only 15 km south of the mountain receives 4,484 mm of rain or snowfall.</p><br>
<p>While the weather on the eastern side of the mountain is generally better, rain or snow can quickly become widespread on that side as well if the wind turns to the south or southeast. This brings with it a rapid drop in temperature and poor visibility,</p><br>
<p>Temperatures at the mountain&#39;s base in the Hooker Valley around 800 m range from -13 &deg;C to 32 &deg;C, and generally fall just over 1 °C for every 200 metres of altitude.</p><br>
<p>From about 1,000 m and higher, semi-permanent snow and ice fields exist during winter. Winter and spring are usually less settled than summer and autumn. Anticyclones often bring days of settled weather in summer, or clear cold conditions in winter with severe frost.</p><br>
<h2>Naming and European discovery</h2><br>
<p>Aoraki is the name of a person in the traditions of the Ngāi Tahu iwi; an early name for the South Island is Te Waka o Aoraki (Aorakis Canoe). In the past many believed it meant "Cloud Piercer", a romantic rendering of the names components: ao (world, daytime, cloud, etc.) and raki or rangi (day, sky, weather, etc.). Historically, the Māori name has been spelt Aorangi, using the standard Māori form.</p><br>
<p>Aoraki / Mount Cook became known to Maori after their arrival in New Zealand some time around the 14th Century CE. The first Europeans who may have seen Aoraki / Mount Cook were members of Abel Tasmans crew, who saw a "large land uplifted high" (probably some part of the Southern Alps) while off the west coast of the South Island, just north of present-day Greymouth on 13 December 1642 during Tasmans first Pacific voyage. The English name of Mount Cook was given to the mountain in 1851 by Captain John Lort Stokes to honour Captain James Cook who surveyed and circumnavigated the islands of New Zealand in 1770. Captain Cook did not sight the mountain during his exploration.</p><br>
<p>Following the settlement between Ngāi Tahu and the Crown in 1998, the name of the mountain was officially changed from Mount Cook to Aoraki / Mount Cook to incorporate its historic Māori name, Aoraki. As part of the settlement, a number of South Island placenames were amended to incorporate their original Māori name. Signifying the importance of Aoraki / Mount Cook, it is the only one of these names where the Māori name precedes the English. Under the settlement the Crown agreed to return title to Aoraki / Mount Cook to Ngāi Tahu, who would then formally gift it back to the nation. Neither transfer has yet occurred; Ngāi Tahu can decide when this will happen.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Southern Alps on the South Island were formed by tectonic uplifting and pressure as the Pacific and Indo-Australian Plates collided along the islands western coast. The uplifting continues, raising Aoraki / Mount Cook an average of 7 mm each year. However, erosive forces are also powerful shapers of the mountains. The severe weather is due to the mountains jutting into powerful westerly winds of the Roaring Forties which run around approximately 45°S latitude, south of both Africa and Australia. The Southern Alps are the first obstacle the winds encounter after South Africa and Australia, having moved east across the Southern Ocean.</p><br>
<p>The height of Aoraki / Mount Cook was established in 1881 by G. J. Roberts (from the west side) and in 1889 by T. N. Brodrick (from the Canterbury side). Their measurements agreed closely at 12,349 ft. The height was reduced by 10 m when approximately 12–14 million cubic metres of rock and ice fell off the northern peak on 14 December 1991.The landslide carried with it another 40 million cubic metres of rock and ice. The impact caused an earth quake of 3.9 on the Richter scale.</p><br>
<p>Two decades of erosion of the ice cap exposed after this collapse reduced the height by another 30 m to 3724 m, as revealed by new GPS data from a University of Otago climbing expedition in November 2013.</p><br>
<p>Mt Cook lies in the centre of the distinctive alpine fault, a 650 km long active fault in the Southern Alps. It is responsible for the uplift of Mt Cook and is believed to move every 100 to 300 years. It last moved in 1717.</p><br>
<h2>Surrounding forests and glaciers</h2><br>
<p>The average annual rainfall in the surrounding lowlands, in particular to the west, is around 5 to 10 m. This very high rainfall leads to temperate rainforests in these coastal lowlands and a reliable source of snow in the mountains to keep the glaciers flowing. These include the Tasman Glacier to the east of the mountain and the smaller Hooker Glacier immediately to its south.</p><br>
<p>The vegetation in the valleys to the east, in particular the Tasman Valley, is noticeably less lush than that on the western slopes of the mountain. Forest would normally grow to about 1,300 m in this area, but a lack of soil due to scree, rock falls and the effects of glaciation prevent this in most localities around the mountain. Snow tussock and other alpine plants cling to as high as 1,900 m.</p><br>
<p>Above the snowline, only lichen can be found amongst the rock, snowfields and ice that dominate the highest parts of Aoraki / Mt Cook.</p><br>
<h2>Climbing history</h2><br>
<p>The first recorded attempt on the summit was made by the Irishman Rev. William S. Green and the Swiss hotelier Emil Boss and the Swiss mountain guide Ulrich Kaufmann on 2 March 1882 via the Tasman and Linda Glaciers.</p><br>
<p>Mt Cook Guidebook author Hugh Logan believe they came within 50 metres of the summit.</p><br>
<p>The first known ascent was on 25 December 1894, when New Zealanders Tom Fyfe, John Michael (Jack) Clarke and George Graham reached the summit via the Hooker Valley and the north ridge. Despite an earlier failed attempt on 20 December, the local climbers were spurred on by their desire for the first ascent to be made by New Zealand mountaineers amid reports that the American mountaineer Edward FitzGerald had his eye on the summit. The party reached the summit at approximately 1:30pm after bounding up the last leg of the mountain full of excitement at reaching the top. The route they had successfully traversed was not repeated again until the 100th ascent over 60 years later in 1955. Swiss guide Matthias Zurbriggen of FitzGeralds party made the second ascent on 14 March 1895 from the Tasman Glacier side, via the ridge that now bears his name. This is credited as the first solo ascent, although Zurbriggen was accompanied part of the way up the ridge by J Adamson. After Zurbriggens ascent it was another ten years before the mountain was climbed again. In February 1905 Jack Clarke with four others completed the third ascent following Zurbriggen&#39;s route. So Clarke therefore became the first person to do a repeat ascent.</p><br>
<p>The first woman to ascend the mountain was Freda Du Faur, an Australian, on 3 December 1910. Local guide George Bannister, a nephew of another guide, Pahikore Te Koeti Turanga of Ngāi Tahu, was the first Māori to successfully scale the peak in 1912.</p><br>
<p>A traverse of the three peaks was first accomplished in 1913 by Freda Du Faur and guides Peter and Alex Graham. This grand traverse was repeated in January 1916 by Conrad Kain, guiding the 57-year-old Mrs. Jane Thomson, considered at the time "a marvellous feat unequalled for daring in the annals of the Southern Alps".</p><br>
<p>Sir Edmund Hillary made his first ascent in January 1948. In February 1948 with Ruth Adams, Harry Ayres and Mick Sullivan, Hillary made the first ascent of the South Ridge to the Low Peak In order to celebrate the life of Hillary the South Ridge was renamed as Hillary Ridge in August 2011.</p><br>
<p>Aoraki / Mount Cook is a technically challenging mountain with a high level of glaciation. Its level of difficulty is often underestimated and can change dramatically depending on weather, snow and ice conditions. The climb crosses large crevasses, and involves risks of ice and rock falls, avalanches and rapidly changing weather conditions.</p><br>
<p>Since the early 20th century, around 80 people have died attempting to climb the mountain, making it New Zealand&#39;s deadliest peak. The climbing season traditionally runs from November to February, and hardly a season goes by without at least one fatality.</p><br>
<h2>Māori history, legends and traditions</h2><br>
<p>According to Māori legend, Aoraki was a young boy who, along with his three brothers, were the sons of Rakinui, the Sky Father. On their voyage around the Papatūānuku, the Earth Mother, their canoe became stranded on a reef and tilted. Aoraki and his brothers climbed onto the top side of their canoe. However, the south wind froze them and turned them to stone. Their canoe became the Te Waka o Aoraki, the South Island, and their prows, the Marlborough Sounds. Aoraki, the tallest, became the highest peak, and his brothers created the Kā Tiritiri o te Moana, the Southern Alps.</p><br>
<p>The Ngāi Tahu, the main iwi (tribe) of New Zealand&#39;s southern region, consider Aoraki as the most sacred of the ancestors that they had descended from. Aoraki brings the iwi with its sense of community and purpose, and remains the physical form of Aoraki and the link between the worlds of the supernatural and nature.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>1642 – Aoraki possibly sighted by Abel Tasman and crew members</p><br>
<p>1770 – Captain Cook named the Southern Alps</p><br>
<p>1851 – Captain Stokes of the survey ship HMS Acheron gave the name Mount Cook to Aoraki</p><br>
<p>1894 – First ascent of Aoraki / Mount Cook, on Christmas Day, by Jack Clarke, Tom Fyfe and George Graham</p><br>
<p>1910 – Freda du Faur became the first woman to climb Aoraki / Mount Cook</p><br>
<p>1913 – First ascents of the footstool and Mt Sefton made by Freda du Faur&#39;s climbing party</p><br>
<p>1914 – First fatal accident, when three men were caught in avalanche on Linda Glacier</p><br>
<p>1982 – Mark Inglis trapped in snow cave</p><br>
<p>1991 – Avalanche of 10 million cubic metres of snow and rock causes 10 metres to be lost off the top of Aoraki / Mount Cook Two decades of erosion of the ice cap exposed after this collapse reduced the height by another 30 m to 3,724 m, as revealed by new GPS data from a University of Otago climbing expedition in November 2013.</p><br>
<p>1998 – The Ngāi Tahu Claims Settlement Act officially recognises the original name, renaming the mountain Aoraki / Mount Cook</p><br>
<p>Megara  is a historic town and a municipality in West Attica, Greece. It lies in the northern section of the Isthmus of Corinth opposite the island of Salamis, which belonged to Megara in archaic times, before being taken by Athens. Megara was one of the four districts of Attica, embodied in the four mythic sons of King Pandion II, of whom Nisos was the ruler of Megara. Megara was also a trade port, its people using their ships and wealth as a way to gain leverage on armies of neighboring poleis. Megara specialized in the exportation of wool and other animal products including livestock such as horses. It possessed two harbors, Pegae, to the west on the Corinthian Gulf and Nisaea, to the east on the Saronic Gulf of the Aegean Sea.</p><br>
<h2>Early history</h2><br>
<p>According to Pausanias, the Megarians said that their town owed its origin to Car, the son of Phoroneus, who built the citadel called Caria and the temples of Demeter called Megara, from which the place derived its name.</p><br>
<p>In historical times, Megara was an early dependency of Corinth, in which capacity colonists from Megara founded Megara Hyblaea, a small polis north of Syracuse in Sicily. Megara then fought a war of independence with Corinth, and afterwards founded Chalcedon in 685 BC, as well as Byzantium (c. 667 BC).</p><br>
<p>Megara is known to have early ties with Miletos, in the region of Caria in Asia Minor. According to some scholars, they had built up a "colonisation alliance". In the 7th/6th century BCE these two cities acted in concordance with each other.</p><br>
<p>Both cities acted under the leadership and sanction of an Apollo oracle. Megara cooperated with that of Delphi. Miletos had her own oracle of Apollo Didymeus Milesios in Didyma. Also, there are many parallels in the political organisation of both cities.</p><br>
<p>In the late 7th century BC Theagenes established himself as tyrant of Megara by slaughtering the cattle of the rich to win over the poor. During the second Persian invasion of Greece (480–479 BC) Megara fought alongside the Spartans and Athenians at crucial battles such as Salamis and Plataea.</p><br>
<p>Megaras defection from the Spartan-dominated Peloponnesian League (c. 460 BC) became one of the causes of the First Peloponnesian War (460 – c. 445 BC). By the terms of the Thirty Years Peace of 446–445 BC Megara was returned to the Peloponnesian League.</p><br>
<p>In the (second) Peloponnesian War (c. 431 – 404 BC), Megara was an ally of Sparta. The Megarian decree is considered to be one of several contributing "causes" of the Peloponnesian War. Athens issued the Megarian decree with the aim of choking out the Megarian economy. The decree banned Megarian merchants from territory controlled by Athens. The Athenians claimed that they were responding to the Megarians&#39; desecration of the Hiera Orgas, a sacred precinct in the border region between the two states.</p><br>
<p>Arguably the most famous citizen of Megara in antiquity was Byzas, the legendary founder of Byzantium in the 7th century BC. The 6th century BC poet Theognis also came from Megara. In the early 4th century BC, Euclid of Megara founded the Megarian school of philosophy which flourished for about a century, and which became famous for the use of logic and dialectic.</p><br>
<p>In 243 BC Megara expelled its Macedonian garrison and joined the Achaean League, but in 223 BC the Megarians left the Achaeans and joined the Boeotian League.</p><br>
<p>The Megarians were proverbial for their generosity in building and endowing temples. Saint Jerome reports "There is a common saying about the Megarians They build as if they are to live forever; they live as if they are to die tomorrow."</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Megara is located in the westernmost part of Attica, near the Megara Gulf, a bay of the Saronic Gulf. The coastal plain around Megara is referred to as Megaris, which is also the name of the ancient city state centered on Megara. Megara is 8 km west of Nea Peramos, 18 km west of Eleusis, 19 km east of Agioi Theodoroi, 34 km west of Athens and 37 km east of Corinth. The Motorway 8 connects it with Athens and Corinth. The Megara railway station is served by Proastiakos suburban trains to Athens and Kiato. There is a small military airfield south of the town, ICAO code LGMG.</p><br>
<p>The main town Megara had 23,456 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The largest other settlements in the municipal unit are Vlychada (pop. 1,462), Kineta (1,446), Pachi (542) and Lakka Kalogirou (517).</p><br>
<h2>Municipality</h2><br>
<p>The municipality Megara was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 2 former municipalities, that became municipal units (constituent communities in brackets):</p><br>
<p>Megara</p><br>
<p>Nea Peramos</p><br>
<p>The municipality has an area of 330.11 km, the municipal unit 322.21 km.</p><br>
<h2>Towns and villages</h2><br>
<p>Agia Triada</p><br>
<p>Aigeirouses</p><br>
<p>Kineta</p><br>
<p>Koumintri</p><br>
<p>Lakka Kalogirou</p><br>
<p>Moni Agiou Ierotheou</p><br>
<p>Moni Agiou Ioannou Prodromou</p><br>
<p>Moni Panachrantou</p><br>
<p>Pachi</p><br>
<p>Stikas</p><br>
<p>Vlychada</p><br>
<h2>Historical population</h2><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Orsippus (8th century BC), runner</p><br>
<p>Byzas (7th century BC), founder of Byzantium</p><br>
<p>Theognis (6th century BC), elegiac poet</p><br>
<p>Eupalinos (6th century BC), engineer who built the Tunnel of Eupalinos on Samos</p><br>
<p>Theagenes (c. 600 BC), Tyrant of Megara</p><br>
<p>Euclid (c. 400 BC), founder of the Megarian school of philosophy</p><br>
<p>Stilpo (c. 325 BC), philosopher of the Megarian school</p><br>
<p>Teles (3rd century BC), cynic philosopher.</p><br>
<h2>Facilities</h2><br>
<p>Mediumwave transmitter with a 180 metres tall radio mast, broadcasting on 666 kHz and 981 kHz</p><br>
<p>The Mozambique Channel  is an arm of the Indian Ocean located between Madagascar and Mozambique. The channel is about 1,600 km long and 419 km across at its narrowest point, and reaches a depth of 3,292 m about 230 km off the coast of Mozambique. A warm current, the Mozambique Current, flows in a southward direction in the channel, leading into the Agulhas Current off the east coast of South Africa.</p><br>
<h2>Extent</h2><br>
<p>The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) defines the limits of the Mozambique Channel as follows:</p><br>
<p>Despite being defined as the South African coast by the IHO, the western limit of the channel is more correctly defined as the coast of Southern Africa or, more specifically, of Mozambique.</p><br>
<h2>Islands in the channel</h2><br>
<h3>Comoros</h3><br>
<p>Grande Comore</p><br>
<p>Mohéli</p><br>
<p>Anjouan</p><br>
<h3>France</h3><br>
<p>Region of France: Mayotte (claimed by Comoros)</p><br>
<p>French Southern and Antarctic Lands, district of Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean :</p><br>
<p>Banc du Geyser (claimed by Madagascar and Comoros)</p><br>
<p>Juan de Nova Island (claimed by Madagascar)</p><br>
<p>Europa Island (claimed by Madagascar)</p><br>
<p>Bassas da India (claimed by Madagascar)</p><br>
<h3>Mozambique</h3><br>
<p>Primeiras and Segundas Archipelago</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Mozambique Channel was a World War II clashpoint during the Battle of Madagascar.</p><br>
<p>Mindanao is the second largest island in the Philippines. Mindanao and the smaller islands surrounding it make up the island group of the same name. As of the 2010 census, the main island was inhabited by 20,281,545 people, while the entire Mindanao island group had a total of 21,968,174 residents.</p><br>
<p>According to the 2015 Philippine Population Census, Davao City is the most populous city on the island, with a population of 1,632,991 residents, followed by Zamboanga City (pop. 861,799), Cagayan de Oro City (pop. 675,950), General Santos City (pop. 594,446) and Iligan City (pop. 342,618). About 70% of residents identify as Christian, and 20% identify as Muslim. Mindanao is divided into 6 Regions; Zamboanga Peninsula, Northern Mindanao, Caraga, Davao, Soccsksargen, and the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM).</p><br>
<p>Native ethnic groups in Mindanao include the Lumad (the Tausugs, Subanons, Samals, and Badjaos of the Zamboanga Peninsula; the Bukidnon, Manobos, Mamanwas, Talaandig, and Higaonon of Northern Mindanao and Caraga; the Bagobo and Samal Mandayas of Davao), and the Moro (Paramata Bantogen, Mabaning Gandamatu, Daranda Mabagani, and Maranaw) in ARMM and Soccsksargen.</p><br>
<p>Mindanao is considered the major Breadbasket of the Philippines. Eight of the top 10 agri-commodities exported from the Philippines come from the island.</p><br>
<p>Philippines&#39; biggest in terms of land area.</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<p>The majority of the island&#39;s inhabitants are descendants of Indonesians, Malaysians, Indians, Arabs, Chinese, Koreans, Japanese, Europeans and Americans.</p><br>
<p>An American census conducted in the early 1900s noted that the island was inhabited by people "greatly divided in origin, temperament and religion". Evidence of the island&#39;s cultural diversity can be seen in the buildings and ruins of old Spanish settlements in the northwestern peninsula that span eastwards to the southern gulf coast, the site of the ancient Rajahnate of Butuan in the northeast region (Caraga), the Sultanates in the southwest (Sultanate of Sulu, Sultanate of Lanao, Sultanate of Maguindanao), a number of Buddhist and Taoist temples, and the numerous indigenous tribes.</p><br>
<h2>Languages</h2><br>
<p>Cebuano (often called Bisayà) is the most widely spoken language in Mindanao. Hiligaynon/Ilonggo is widely spoken in SOCCSKSARGEN and a few scattered areas surrounding the region. English and Filipino are also widely understood and spoken amongst the peoples, with English being highly utilized in business and academia.</p><br>
<p>Chavacano is a form of Spanish Creole that is widely spoken in the western and southern regions of the Mindanao. Zamboangueño, one of the six dialects belonging to the Chavacano language, is used by a distinct ethnolinguistic group (Zamboangueños). It is the dominant language in Zamboanga City and Basilan; and is spoken to a lesser degree in Zamboanga del Sur, Zamboanga del Norte, Zamboanga Sibugay, Sulu, and Tawi-Tawi. Other dialects in Chavacano are; Cotabateño in Cotabato City, and Castellano Abakay/Davaoeño Chavacano in the Davao Region.</p><br>
<h2>Religion</h2><br>
<p>Roman Catholic is the dominant religious affiliation in Mindanao with 60.9 percent of the household population, Islam comprised 20.44 percent, and other religions were Evangelical (5.34%), Aglipayan (2.16), Iglesia ni Cristo (1.66%), and Seventh Day Adventist (1.65%).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Prehistory</h3><br>
<p>Archaeological findings on the island point to evidence of human activity dating back to about ten thousand years ago. At around 1500 BC Austronesian people spread throughout the Philippines.</p><br>
<p>The Subanon are believed to have established themselves on Mindanao Island during the Neolithic Era, or New Stone Age, the period in the development of human technology beginning around 10,000 BC according to the ASPRO chronology (between 4,500 and 2,000 BC). The evidence of old stone tools in Zamboanga del Norte may indicate a late Neolithic presence. Ceramic burial jars, both unglazed and glazed, as well as Chinese celadons, have been found in caves, together with shell bracelets, beads, and gold ornaments. Many of the ceramic objects are from the Yuan and Ming periods. Evidently, there was a long history of trade between the Subanon and the Chinese long before the latter&#39;s contact with Islam.</p><br>
<h3>Rajahnates and Hindu-Buddhism</h3><br>
<p>In the classic epoch of Philippine history (900 AD onwards), the people of Mindanao were heavily exposed to Hindu and Buddhist influence and beliefs from Indonesia and Malaysia. Indianized abugida scripts such as Kawi and Baybayin was introduced via Sulawesi and Java, and the cultural icons of the sarong (known as malong or patadyong), the pudong turban, silk, and batik and ikat weaving and dyeing methods were introduced. Artifacts found from this era include the Golden kinnara, Golden Tara, and the Ganesh pendant. These cultural traits passed from Mindanao into the Visayas and Luzon, but were subsequently lost or heavily modified after the Spanish arrival in the 16th century.</p><br>
<p>The Hindu-Buddhist cultural revolution was strongest in the coastal areas of the island, but were incorporated into local animist beliefs and customs tribes that resided more inland. The Rajahnate of Butuan, a fully-Hindu kingdom mentioned in Chinese records as a tributary state in the 10th century AD, was concentrated along the northeastern coast of the island around Butuan. The Darangen epic of the Maranao people harkens back to this era as the most compete local version of the Ramayana. The Maguindanao at this time also had strong Hindu beliefs, evidenced by the Ladya Lawana (Rajah Ravana) epic saga that survives to the modern day, albeit highly Islamized from the 17th century on wards.</p><br>
<h3>Sultanates and Islam</h3><br>
<p>The spread of Islam in the Philippines began in the 14th century, when Muslim merchants from Malaysia, Borneo, and Indonesia began converting the native tribes they traded with, because of this the first mosque in the Philippines was built in the mid-14th century in the town of Simunul. In the 16th century, Muslims from Malaysia migrated to Sulu, Lanao and Maguindanao and established Sultanates from formerly Hindu-Buddhist Rajahnates. The Muslim Malaysians displaced the non-Muslim natives to the northern and eastern parts of the island.</p><br>
<p>As the Muslims gained control over most of Mindanao, the natives residing within the Sultanates converted into Islam; and as part of Mindanao, the surrounding native tribes who were not Muslim were obligated to pay tribute to Muslim rulers. The largest of the Muslim settlements was the Sultanate named after the Maguindanaoans. Maps made during the 17th and 18th centuries suggest that the name Mindanao was used by the natives to refer to the island, by then Islam was well established in Mindanao and had influenced groups on other islands to the north.</p><br>
<h3>Spanish Colonization and Christianity</h3><br>
<p>On February 2, 1543, Ruy Lopez de Villalobos was the first Spaniard to reach Mindanao, he called the island "Caesarea Caroli" after Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire (and I of Spain). Shortly after Spain&#39;s colonization of Cebu, they moved on to colonize Butuan and the surrounding Caraga region in northeast Mindanao and discovered significant Muslim presence on the island. Overtime a number of tribes in Mindanao converted to Roman Catholicism and built settlements and forts throughout the coastal regions of the island. These settlements endured despite incurring attacks from neighboring Muslim Sultanates. The most heavily fortified of these settlements, apart from a short period in 1662 when Spain sent soldiers from the city to Manila after receiving a threat of invasion from the Chinese general Koxinga, was Zamboanga City.</p><br>
<p>By the late 18th century Spain had geographic dominance over the island, having established settlements and forts in most of Mindanao; including Zamboanga City and Misamis Occidental to the northwest, Iligan City, Misamis Oriental, Bukidnon, and Camiguin Island to the north, Butuan and the Caraga region to the east, and Davao in the island&#39;s gulf coast. Spain continued to engage in battles with Muslim Sultanates until end of the 19th century.</p><br>
<h3>American Occupation</h3><br>
<p>In the Treaty of Paris in 1898 Spain sold the entire Philippine archipelago to the United States for $20 Million. The 1900 Treaty of Washington and the 1930 Convention Between the United States and Great Britain clarified the borders between Mindanao and Borneo.</p><br>
<h3>Philippine Commonwealth</h3><br>
<p>In 1939 the Philippine government encouraged citizens from Luzon and Visayas to migrate to Mindanao. Consisting mostly of Ilocanos, Cebuanos, and Illongos, Filipino settlers streaming into Soccsksargen lead to the displacement of the Blaan and Tboli tribes.</p><br>
<h3>World War II</h3><br>
<p>Davao City was among the earliest to be occupied by the invading Japanese Forces, and they immediately fortified the city as a bastion of the Japanese defense system. It was subjected by the returning forces of Gen. Mac Arthur to constant bombing, before the American Liberation Forces landed in Leyte in October 1945.</p><br>
<p>On April 1942 Mindanao, along with the rest of the Philippines, officially entered World War II after Japanese soldiers invaded key cities in the islands. Many towns and cities were burned to the ground in Mindanao, most notably Davao City, Zamboanga City, Lanao, Cagayan de Oro, Iligan City, and Butuan. In the months of April and May 1942, Japanese forces defeated US troops commanded by Gen. William F. Sharp and Gen. Guy O. Fort, in a battle that started at Malabang (a town close to Gandamatu Macadar, Lanao) and ended close to the town of Ganassi, Lanao. Filipino soldiers and local guerrilla fighters were actively fighting Japanese forces until liberation at the conclusion of the Battle of Mindanao.</p><br>
<h3>Recent Conflicts</h3><br>
<p>Violent conflicts in the southwestern regions of Mindanao, that began in the 1960s, led to the 1971 Manili Massacre, Pata Island Massacre, the founding of the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF), Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF), and the formation of the Ilaga.</p><br>
<p>In March 2000 President Estrada declared an "All Out War" against the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF), after the militant group committed a series of terrorist attacks on government buildings, civilians, and foreigners. A number of livelihood intervention projects, from organisations such as USAID and the Emergency Livelihood Assistance Program (ELAP), aided in the reconstruction of areas affected by constant battles on the island.</p><br>
<p>In December 2009, President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo officially placed Maguindanao under a state of martial law following the Maguindanao Massacre.</p><br>
<p>In May 2017, President Rodrigo Duterte declared martial law on the entire island group of Mindanao following the Marawi Siege by the Maute terrorist group. Thousands of civilians were killed by the terrorist group during the siege, and more than 180,000 people were forced to evacuate Marawi City.</p><br>
<h3>Typhoon Sendong</h3><br>
<p>Tropical storm Sendong (international name, Washi) made landfall on December 15, 2011 in Mindanao. The recorded 24-hour rainfall in Lumbia station of PAGASA reached 180.9 mm causing the overflow of the Cagayan de Oro River. The deadly storm killed 1,268 people with 49 others listed as missing. Most of the casualties were from the cities of Cagayan de Oro and Iligan. Those who survived were rendered homeless, seeking shelter in evacuation centers.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>Cagayan de Oro is the "melting pot of Mindanao" because of its accessibility, business growth and attractions. It is a business hub of the northern Mindanao region, with a reported income of ₱1.8 billion in fiscal year 2010. The city&#39;s economy is based on industry, commerce, trade, services and tourism. The city of Cagayan de Oro reported seven billion pesos in investment during the first six months of 2012, primarily in the service and industrial sectors. Investment in Metro Cagayan de Oro focuses on tourism, agriculture and the hospitality industry.</p><br>
<h2>Administrative divisions</h2><br>
<p>The island consists of 6 administrative regions, 22 provinces, and 30 cities (27 provinces and 33 cities if associated islands are included).</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Mindanao is the second largest island in the Philippines at 97,530 square kilometers, and is the eighth most populous island in the world. The island of Mindanao is larger than 125 countries worldwide, including the Netherlands, South Korea, Austria, Portugal, Czech Republic, Hungary, and Ireland. The island is mountainous, and is home to Mount Apo, the highest mountain in the country. Mindanao is surrounded by 4 seas: the Sulu Sea to the west, the Philippine Sea to the east, and the Celebes Sea to the south, and the Mindanao Sea to the north. Of all the islands of the Philippines, Mindanao shows the greatest variety of physiographic development. High, rugged, faulted mountains; almost isolated volcanic peaks; high rolling plateaus; and broad, level, swampy plains are found there.</p><br>
<p>The Mindanao island group is an arbitrary grouping of islands in southern Philippines which comprises the Mindanao mainland, the Sulu Archipelago (consisting of the islands of Basilan, Sulu, and Tawi-tawi), and the outlying islands of Camiguin, Dinagat, Siargao, and Samal.</p><br>
<h3>Mountains</h3><br>
<p>The mountains of Mindanao can be grouped into ten ranges, including both complex structural mountains and volcanoes. The structural mountains on the extreme eastern and western portions of the island show broad exposures of Mesozoic rock, and Ultrabasic rocks at the surface in many places along the east coast. Other parts of the island consist mainly of Cenozoic and Quaternary volcanic or sedimentary rocks.</p><br>
<p>In the eastern portion of the island, from Bilas Point in Surigao del Norte to Cape San Agustin in Davao Oriental, is a range of complex mountains known in their northern portion as the Diwata Mountains. This range is low and rolling in its central portion. A proposed road connecting Bislig on the east coast with the Agusan River would pass through 16 km of broad saddle across the mountains at a maximum elevation of less than 250 m; while the existing east-west road from Lianga, 48 km north of Bislig, reaches a maximum elevation of only 450 m. The Diwata Mountains, north of these low points, are considerably higher and more rugged, reaching an elevation of 2,012 m in Mount Hilong-Hilong, 17 mi along the eastern portion of Cabadbaran City. The southern portion of this range is broader and even more rugged than the northern section. In Davao Oriental, several peaks rise above 2,600 m and one mountain rises to 2,910 m.</p><br>
<p>The east-facing coastal regions of Davao and Surigao del Sur are marked by a series of small coastal lowlands separated from each other by rugged forelands which extend to the water’s edge. Offshore are numerous coral reefs and tiny islets. This remote and forbidding coast is made doubly difficult to access during the months from October to March by the heavy surf driven before the northeast trade winds. A few miles offshore is found the Philippine Deep. This ocean trench, reaching measured depths of 34,696 ft, is the third deepest trench, (after the Mariana Trench and Tonga Trench) on the earth’s surface.</p><br>
<p>A second north-south mountain range extends from Talisayan in the north, to Tinaca Point in the southernmost point of Mindanao. This mountain range runs along the western borders of the Agusan del Norte, Agusan del Sur, and Davao provinces. This range is mainly structural in origin, but it also contains at least three active volcano peaks. The central and northern portions of this range contain several peaks between 2,000 and, and here the belt of mountains is about 30 mi across.</p><br>
<p>West of Davao City stand two inactive volcanoes: Mount Talomo at 2,893 m, and Mount Apo at 2,964 m. Mount Apo is the highest point in the Philippines. South of Mount Apo, this central mountain belt is somewhat lower than it is to the north, with peaks averaging only 1100 to 1800 m.</p><br>
<p>In Western Mindanao, a range of complex structural mountains forms the long, hand-like Zamboanga Peninsula. These mountains, reaching heights of only 1,200 m, are not as high as the other structural belts in Mindanao. There are several places in the Zamboanga Mountains where small inter-mountain basins have been created, with some potential for future agricultural development. The northeastern end of this range is marked by the twin peaks of the now extinct volcano, Mount Malindang, that towers over Ozamis City at a height of 2,425 m. Mount Dapia is the highest mountain in the Zamboanga Peninsula, reaching a height of 2,617 m. Batorampon Point is the highest mountain of the southernmost end of the peninsula, reaching a height of only 1,335 m; it is located in the boundary of Zamboanga City.</p><br>
<p>A series of volcanic mountains is located within the vicinity of Lake Lanao forming a broad arc through the Lanao del Sur, Cotabato and Bukidnon provinces. At least six of the twenty odd peaks in this area are active and several stand in semi-isolation. The Butig Peaks, with their four crater lakes, are easily seen from Cotabato. Mount Ragang, an active volcano cone reaching 2,815 m, is the most isolated, while the greatest height is reached by Mount Kitanglad at 2,889 m.</p><br>
<p>In South Cotabato, is another range of volcanic mountains, this time paralleling the coast. These mountains have a maximum extent of 110 mi from northwest to southeast and measures some 30 mi across. One of the well-known mountains here is Mount Parker, whose almost circular crater lake measures a mile and a quarter in diameter and lies 300 m below its 2,040 m summit. Mount Matutum is a protected area and is considered as one of the major landmarks in the South Cotabato province.</p><br>
<h3>Plateaus</h3><br>
<p>Another important physiographic division of Mindanao is the series of upland plateaus in the Bukidnon and Lanao del Sur provinces. These plateaus are rather extensive and almost surround several volcanoes in this area. The plateaus are made up of basaltic lava flows inter-bedded with volcanic ash and tuff. Near their edges, the plateaus are cut by deep canyons, and at several points waterfalls drop down to the narrow coastal plain. These falls hold considerable promise for development of hydroelectric energy. Indeed, one such site at Maria Cristina Falls has already become a major producer. The rolling plateaus lie at an elevation averaging 700 meters above sea level, and offer relief from the often oppressive heat of the coastal lowlands.</p><br>
<h3>Lakes and Waterfalls</h3><br>
<p>Lake Lanao occupies a large portion of one such plateau in Lanao del Sur. This lake is the largest lake in Mindanao and the second largest in the country; it is roughly triangular in shape with an 18 mi-long base, having a surface at 780 meters above sea level, and is rimmed on the east, south, and west by a series of peaks reaching 2,300 meters. Marawi City, at the northern tip of the lake, is bisected by the Agus River, that feeds the Maria Cristina Falls.</p><br>
<p>Another of Mindanao’s waterfall sites is located in Malabang, 15 mi south of Lake Lanao. Here the Jose Abad Santos Falls present one of the nation’s scenic wonders at the gateway to a 200-hectare national park development.</p><br>
<p>The Limunsudan Falls, with an approximate height of 800 ft, is the highest waterfall in the Philippines; it is located in Iligan City.</p><br>
<h3>Valleys, Rivers, and Plains</h3><br>
<p>Mindanao contains two large lowland areas in the valleys of the Agusan River in Agusan, and the Rio Grande de Mindanao in Cotabato City.</p><br>
<p>There is some indication that the Agusan Valley occupies a broad syncline between the central mountains and the east-coast mountains. This valley measures 110 mi from south to north and varies from 20 to 30 mi in width. 35 mi north of the head of Davao Gulf lies the watershed between the Agusan and the tributaries of the Libuganon River, which flows to the Gulf. The elevation of this divide is well under 200 m, indicating the almost continuous nature of the lowland from the Mindanao Sea on the north to the Davao Gulf.</p><br>
<p>The Rio Grande de Mindanao and its main tributaries, the Catisan and the Pulangi, form a valley with a maximum length of 120 mi and a width which varies from 12 mi at the river mouth to about 60 mi in central Cotabato. The southern extensions of this Cotabato Valley extend uninterrupted across a 350 m watershed from Illana Bay on the northwest to Sarangani Bay on the southeast.</p><br>
<p>Other lowlands of a coastal nature are to be found in various parts of Mindanao. Many of these are tiny isolated pockets, along the northwest coast of Zamboanga. In other areas such as the Davao Plain, these coastal lowlands are 16 km wide and several times in length.</p><br>
<p>From Dipolog City eastward along the northern coast of Mindanao approaching Butuan City extends a rolling coastal plain of varying width. In Misamis Occidental, the now dormant Mount Malindang has created a lowland averaging 13 km in width. Shallow Panquil Bay divides this province from Lanao del Norte, and is bordered by low-lying, poorly drained lowlands and extensive mangroves. In Misamis Oriental, the plain is narrower and in places whittle into rugged capes that reach the sea. East of Cagayan de Oro, a rugged peninsula extends into the Mindanao Sea.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>Major tourist spots are scattered throughout Mindanao, consisting mostly of beach resorts, scuba diving resorts, surfing, museums, nature parks, mountain climbing, and river rafting. Siargao, best known for its surfing tower in Cloud 9, also has caves, pools, waterfalls, and lagoons. There are archaeological sites, historical ruins, and museums in Butuan. White Island is a popular tourist spot in Camiguin. The, and the dive resorts in Misamis Oriental, offer glass bottomed boat rides and scuba diving lessons. Cagayan de Oro has beach resorts, the Mapawa Nature Park, white water rafting and kayaking, museums, and historical landmarks. Ziplining is the main attraction at the Dahilayan Adventure Park in Bukidnon. Iligan City has The Maria Christina Falls, Tinago Falls, nature parks, beaches, and historical landmarks. There are parks, historical buildings, the Vinta Ride at Paseo del Mar, boat villages, and the Fort Pilar Museum in Zamboanga City. There are festivals, fireworks, and the Beras Bird Sanctuary in Takurong City. Davao has Mt Apo, parks, museums, beaches, historical landmarks, and scuba diving resorts.</p><br>
<p>Precautions should be taken when traveling to ARMM and the Zamboanga Peninsula; pirates, human traffickers, drug cartels, and terrorist groups have been known to abduct, torture, and murder civilians in these regions. The island has the highest crime rate in the country.</p><br>
<h2>Energy</h2><br>
<p>Many areas in Mindanao suffer rotating 12-hour blackouts due to the island’s woefully inadequate power supply. The island is forecast to continue suffering from a 200-megawatt power deficit until 2015, when the private sector begins to operate new capacity. Aboitiz Equity Ventures, a publicly listed holdings company, has committed to supplying 1,200 megawatts through a coal-fired plant on the border of Davao City and Davao del Sur that is slated for operation by 2018. The Agus-Pulangui hydropower complex, which supplies more than half of Mindanao’s power supply, is currently producing only 635 megawatts of its 982 megawatts capacity due to the heavy siltation of the rivers that power the complex. Zamboanga City, an urbanised center in southwest Mindanao, is expected to begin experience daily three-hour brownouts due to the National Power Corporation’s decision to reduce power supply in the city by 10 megawatts.</p><br>
<p>The Manila Electric Company (Meralco), the largest power distributor in the Philippines, and Global Business Power Corp (GBPC), also a major provider, have announced plans to enter Mindanao for the first time to establish solutions for the power problems within the island.</p><br>
<p>Mehrgarh , sometimes anglicized as Mehergarh or Mehrgar, is a Neolithic  site located near the Bolan Pass on the Kacchi Plain of Balochistan, Pakistan, to the west of the Indus River valley.</p><br>
<p>The earliest settlement at Mehrgarh, in the northeast corner of the 495 acre site, was a small farming village which was inhabited from circa 6500 BCE. It is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming and herding in South Asia.</p><br>
<p>The site was discovered in 1974 by an archaeological team led by French archaeologists Jean-François Jarrige and Catherine Jarrige, and was excavated continuously between 1974 and 1986, and again from 1997 to 2000. Archaeological material has been found in six mounds, and about 32,000 artifacts have been collected.</p><br>
<p>Mehrgarh is now seen as a precursor to the Indus Valley Civilization, displaying the whole sequence from earliest settlement and the start of agriculture, to the mature Harappan Civilisation.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Jean-Francois Jarrige argues for an independent origin of Mehrgarh. Jarrige notes "the assumption that farming economy was introduced full-fledged from Near-East to South Asia," and the similarities between Neolithic sites from eastern Mesopotamia and the western Indus valley, which are evidence of a "cultural continuum" between those sites. But given the originality of Mehrgarh, Jarrige concludes that Mehrgarh has an earlier local background," and is not a "backwater of the Neolithic culture of the Near East."</p><br>
<p>According to Lukacs and Hemphill, while there is a strong continuity between the neolithic and chalcolithic (Copper Age) cultures of Mehrgarh, dental evidence shows that the chalcolithic population did not descend from the neolithic population of Mehrgarh, which "suggests moderate levels of gene flow." They wrote that "the direct lineal descendents of the Neolithic inhabitants of Mehrgarh are to be found to the south and the east of Mehrgarh, in northwestern India and the western edge of the Deccan plateau," with neolithic Mehrgarh showing greater affinity with chalocolithic Inamgaon, south of Mehrgarh, than with chalcolithic Mehrgarh.</p><br>
<p>Gallego Romero et al. (2011) state that their research on lactose tolerance in India suggests that "the west Eurasian genetic contribution identified by Reich et al. (2009) principally reflects gene flow from Iran and the Middle East." Gallego Romero notes that Indians who are lactose-tolerant show a genetic pattern regarding this tolerance which is "characteristic of the common European mutation." According to Romero, this suggests that "the most common lactose tolerance mutation made a two-way migration out of the Middle East less than 10,000 years ago. While the mutation spread across Europe, another explorer must have brought the mutation eastward to India – likely traveling along the coast of the Persian Gulf where other pockets of the same mutation have been found." They further note that "he earliest evidence of cattle herding in south Asia comes from the Indus River Valley site of Mehrgarh and is dated to 7,000 YBP."</p><br>
<h2>Periods of occupation</h2><br>
<p>Archaeologists divide the occupation at the site into eight periods.</p><br>
<h3>Mehrgarh Period I (7000 BCE-5500 BCE)</h3><br>
<p>The Mehrgarh Period I (7000 BCE-5500 BCE) was Neolithic and aceramic, without the use of pottery. The earliest farming in the area was developed by semi-nomadic people using plants such as wheat and barley and animals such as sheep, goats and cattle. The settlement was established with simple mud buildings and most of them had four internal subdivisions. Numerous burials have been found, many with elaborate goods such as baskets, stone and bone tools, beads, bangles, pendants and occasionally animal sacrifices, with more goods left with burials of males. Ornaments of sea shell, limestone, turquoise, lapis lazuli and sandstone have been found, along with simple figurines of women and animals. Sea shells from far sea shore and lapis lazuli found as far away as present-day Badakshan, Afghanistan shows good contact with those areas. A single ground stone axe was discovered in a burial, and several more were obtained from the surface. These ground stone axes are the earliest to come from a stratified context in South Asia. Periods I, II and III are contemporaneous with another site called Kili Gul Mohammed.</p><br>
<p>The aceramic Neolithic phase in the region is now called Kili Gul Muhammad phase, and it is dated 7000-5000 BC. Yet the Kili Gul Muhammad site, itself, may have started c. 5500 BC.</p><br>
<p>In 2001, archaeologists studying the remains of two men from Mehrgarh made the discovery that the people of the Indus Valley Civilization had knowledge of proto-dentistry from the early Harappan periods. In April 2006, it was announced in the scientific journal Nature that the oldest (and first early Neolithic) evidence for the drilling of human teeth in vivo (i.e. in a living person) was found in Mehrgarh. According to the authors, their discoveries point to a tradition of proto-dentistry in the early farming cultures of that region. "Here we describe eleven drilled molar crowns from nine adults discovered in a Neolithic graveyard in Pakistan that dates from 7,500 to 9,000 years ago. These findings provide evidence for a long tradition of a type of proto-dentistry in an early farming culture."</p><br>
<h3>Mehrgarh Period II (5500 BCE–4800 BCE) and Period III (4800 BCE–3500 BCE)</h3><br>
<p>The Mehrgarh Period II (5500 BCE–4800 BCE) and Merhgarh Period III (4800 BCE–3500 BCE) were ceramic Neolithic, using pottery, and later chalcolithic. Period II is at site MR4 and Period III is at MR2. Much evidence of manufacturing activity has been found and more advanced techniques were used. Glazed faience beads were produced and terracotta figurines became more detailed. Figurines of females were decorated with paint and had diverse hairstyles and ornaments. Two flexed burials were found in Period II with a red ochre cover on the body. The amount of burial goods decreased over time, becoming limited to ornaments and with more goods left with burials of females. The first button seals were produced from terracotta and bone and had geometric designs. Technologies included stone and copper drills, updraft kilns, large pit kilns and copper melting crucibles. There is further evidence of long-distance trade in Period II: important as an indication of this is the discovery of several beads of lapis lazuli, once again from Badakshan. Mehrgarh Periods II and III are also contemporaneous with an expansion of the settled populations of the borderlands at the western edge of South Asia, including the establishment of settlements like Rana Ghundai, Sheri Khan Tarakai, Sarai Kala, Jalilpur and Ghaligai.</p><br>
<h3>Mehrgarh Periods IV, V and VI (3500 BCE-3000 BCE)</h3><br>
<p>Period IV was 3500 to 3250 BCE. Period V from 3250 to 3000 BCE and period VI was around 3000 BCE. The site containing Periods IV to VII is designated as MR1.</p><br>
<h3>Mehrgarh Period VII (2600 BCE-2000 BCE)</h3><br>
<p>Somewhere between 2600 BCE and 2000 BCE, the city seems to have been largely abandoned in favor of the larger and fortified town Nausharo five miles away when the Indus Valley Civilization was in its middle stages of development. Historian Michael Wood suggests this took place around 2500 BCE.</p><br>
<h3>Mehrgarh Period VIII</h3><br>
<p>The last period is found at the Sibri cemetery, about 8 kilometers from Mehrgarh.</p><br>
<h2>Lifestyle and technology</h2><br>
<p>Early Mehrgarh residents lived in mud brick houses, stored their grain in granaries, fashioned tools with local copper ore, and lined their large basket containers with bitumen. They cultivated six-row barley, einkorn and emmer wheat, jujubes and dates, and herded sheep, goats and cattle. Residents of the later period (5500 BCE to 2600 BCE) put much effort into crafts, including flint knapping, tanning, bead production, and metal working. Mehrgarh is probably the earliest known center of agriculture in South Asia.</p><br>
<p>The oldest known example of the lost-wax technique comes from a 6,000-year-old wheel-shaped copper amulet found at Mehrgarh. The amulet was made from unalloyed copper, an unusual innovation that was later abandoned.</p><br>
<h2>Artifacts</h2><br>
<h3>Human figurines</h3><br>
<p>The oldest ceramic figurines in South Asia were found at Mehrgarh. They occur in all phases of the settlement and were prevalent even before pottery appears. The earliest figurines are quite simple and do not show intricate features. However, they grow in sophistication with time and by 4000 BC begin to show their characteristic hairstyles and typical prominent breasts. All the figurines up to this period were female. Male figurines appear only from period VII and gradually become more numerous. Many of the female figurines are holding babies, and were interpreted as depictions of the "mother goddess". However, due to some difficulties in conclusively identifying these figurines with the "mother goddess", some scholars prefer using the term "female figurines with likely cultic significance".</p><br>
<h3>Pottery</h3><br>
<p>Evidence of pottery begins from Period II. In period III, the finds become much more abundant as the potter&#39;s wheel is introduced, and they show more intricate designs and also animal motifs. The characteristic female figurines appear beginning in Period IV and the finds show more intricate designs and sophistication. Pipal leaf designs are used in decoration from Period VI. Some sophisticated firing techniques were used from Period VI and VII and an area reserved for the pottery industry has been found at mound MR1. However, by Period VIII, the quality and intricacy of designs seem to have suffered due to mass production, and due to a growing interest in bronze and copper vessels.</p><br>
<h3>Burials</h3><br>
<p>There are two types of burials in the Mehrgarh site. There were individual burials where a single individual was enclosed in narrow mud walls and collective burials with thin mud brick walls within which skeletons of six different individuals were discovered. The bodies in the collective burials were kept in a flexed position and were laid east to west. Child bones were found in large jars or urn burials (4000~3300 BCE).</p><br>
<h3>Metallurgy</h3><br>
<p>Metal finds have dated as early as Period IIB, with a few copper items.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeological significance</h2><br>
<p>Mehrgarh is now seen as a precursor to the Indus Valley Civilization. According to Ahmad Hasan Dani, professor emeritus of archaeology at Quaid-e-Azam University in Islamabad, "discoveries at Mehrgarh changed the entire concept of the Indus civilization There we have the whole sequence, right from the beginning of settled village life."</p><br>
<p>Mount Baker , also known as Koma Kulshan or simply Kulshan, is an active glaciated andesitic stratovolcano About 31 mi due east of the city of Bellingham, Whatcom County, Mount Baker is the youngest volcano in the Mount Baker volcanic field. While volcanism has persisted here for some 1.5 million years, the current glaciated cone is likely no more than 140,000 years old, and possibly no older than 80–90,000 years. Older volcanic edifices have mostly eroded away due to glaciation.</p><br>
<p>After Mount Rainier, Mount Baker is the most heavily glaciated of the Cascade Range volcanoes; the volume of snow and ice on Mount Baker, 0.43 cumi is greater than that of all the other Cascades volcanoes (except Rainier) combined. It is also one of the snowiest places in the world; in 1999, Mount Baker Ski Area, located 14 km to the northeast, set the world record for recorded snowfall in a single season—1,140 in.</p><br>
<p>At 10,781 ft, it is the third-highest mountain in Washington State and the fifth-highest in the Cascade Range, if Little Tahoma Peak, a subpeak of Mount Rainier, and Shastina, a subpeak of Mount Shasta, are not counted. Located in the Mount Baker Wilderness, it is visible from much of Greater Victoria, Nanaimo, and Greater Vancouver in British Columbia and, to the south, from Seattle (and on clear days Tacoma) in Washington.</p><br>
<p>Indigenous Peoples have known the mountain for thousands of years, but the first written record of the mountain is from Spanish explorer Gonzalo Lopez de Haro, who mapped it in 1790 as Gran Montaña del Carmelo, "Great Mount Carmel". The explorer George Vancouver renamed the mountain for 3rd Lieutenant Joseph Baker of HMS Discovery, who saw it on April 30, 1792.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Mount Baker was well-known to indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest. Indigenous names for the mountain include Koma Kulshan or Kulshan (Lummi: qwú’mə, "white sentinel", and kwəlshé:n, "puncture wound", i.e. "crater")</p><br>
<p>Quck Sam-ik (kw’eq sámit, "white mountain"); Kobah (qwúbə’, "white sentinel", and Tukullum or Nahcullum (in the language of the unidentified "Koma tribe").</p><br>
<p>In 1790, Manuel Quimper of the Spanish Navy set sail from Nootka, a temporary settlement on Vancouver Island, with orders to explore the newly discovered Strait of Juan de Fuca. Accompanying Quimper was first-pilot Gonzalo Lopez de Haro, who drew detailed charts during the six-week expedition. Although Quimpers journal of the voyage does not refer to the mountain, one of Haros manuscript charts includes a sketch of Mount Baker. The Spanish named the snowy volcano La Gran Montana del Carmelo, as it reminded them of the white-clad monks of the Carmelite Monastery.</p><br>
<p>The British explorer George Vancouver left England a year later. His mission was to survey the northwest coast of America. Vancouver and his crew reached the Pacific Northwest coast in 1792. While anchored in Dungeness Bay on the south shore of the Strait of Juan de Fuca, third lieutenant Joseph Baker made an observation of Mount Baker, which Vancouver recorded in his journal:</p><br>
<p>Six years later, the official narrative of this voyage was published, including the first printed reference to the mountain. By the mid-1850s, Mount Baker was a well-known feature on the horizon to the explorers and fur traders who traveled in the Puget Sound region. Isaac I. Stevens, the first governor of Washington Territory, wrote about Mount Baker in 1853:</p><br>
<h2>Climbing history</h2><br>
<h3>First European ascent</h3><br>
<p>Edmund Thomas Coleman, an Englishman who resided in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada and a veteran of the Alps, made the first attempt to ascend the mountain in 1866. He chose a route via the Skagit River, but was forced to turn back when local Native Americans refused him passage.</p><br>
<p>Later that same year, Coleman recruited Whatcom County settlers Edward Eldridge, John Bennett and John Tennant to aid him in his second attempt to scale the mountain. After approaching via the North Fork of the Nooksack River, the party navigated through what is now known as Coleman Glacier and ascended to within several hundred feet of the summit before turning back in the face of an "overhanging cornice of ice" and threatening weather. Coleman later returned to the mountain after two years. At 4:00 p.m. on August 17, 1868, Coleman, Eldridge, Tennant and two new companions (David Ogilvy and Thomas Stratton) scaled the summit via the Middle Fork Nooksack River, Marmot Ridge, Coleman Glacier, and the north margin of the Roman Wall.</p><br>
<h3>Notable ascents</h3><br>
<p>1948 North Ridge (AD, AI 2-3, 3700 feet) Fred Beckey, Ralph and Dick Widrig (August 1948)</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The present-day cone of Mount Baker is relatively young; it is perhaps less than 100,000 years old. Much of Mount Baker&#39;s earlier geological record eroded away during the last ice age (which culminated 15,000–20,000 years ago), by thick ice sheets that filled the valleys and surrounded the volcano. In the last 14,000 years, the area around the mountain has been largely ice-free, but the mountain itself remains heavily covered with snow and ice.</p><br>
<p>Isolated ridges of lava and hydrothermally altered rock, especially in the area of Sherman Crater, are exposed between glaciers on the upper flanks of the volcano; the lower flanks are steep and heavily vegetated. Volcanic rocks of Mount Baker and Black Buttes rest on a foundation of non-volcanic rocks.</p><br>
<p>Deposits recording the last 14,000 years at Mount Baker indicate that Mount Baker has not had highly explosive eruptions like those of other volcanoes in the Cascade Volcanic Arc, such as Mount St. Helens, Mount Meager or Glacier Peak, nor has it erupted frequently. During this period, four episodes of magmatic eruptive activity have been recently recognized.</p><br>
<p>Magmatic eruptions have produced tephra, pyroclastic flows, and lava flows from summit vents and the Schriebers Meadow cinder cone. The most destructive and most frequent events at Mount Baker have been lahars or debris flows and debris avalanches; many, if not most, of these were not related to magmatic eruptions but may have been induced by magma intrusion, steam eruptions, earthquakes, gravitational instability, or possibly even heavy rainfall.</p><br>
<h3>Eruptive history</h3><br>
<h4>Early history</h4><br>
<p>Research beginning in the late 1990s shows that Mount Baker is the youngest of several volcanic centers in the area and one of the youngest volcanoes in the Cascade Range. The Pliocene Hannegan caldera is preserved 25 km northeast of Mount Baker Volcanic activity in the Mount Baker volcanic field began more than one million years ago, but many of the earliest lava and tephra deposits have been removed by glacial erosion. The pale-colored rocks northeast of the modern volcano mark the site of the ancient (1.15 million years old) Kulshan caldera that collapsed after an enormous ash eruption one million years ago. Subsequently, eruptions in the Mount Baker area have produced cones and lava flows of andesite, the rock that constitutes much of other Cascade Range volcanoes such as Rainier, Adams, and Hood. From about 900,000 years ago to the present, numerous andesitic volcanic centers in the area have come and disappeared through glacial erosion. The largest of these cones is the Black Buttes edifice, active between 500,000 and 300,000 years ago and formerly bigger than today&#39;s Mount Baker.</p><br>
<h4>Modern craters and cone</h4><br>
<p>Mount Baker was built from stacks of lava and volcanic breccia prior to the end of the last glacial period, which ended about 15,000 years ago. There are two craters on the mountain. Ice-filled Carmelo Crater is under the summit ice dome.</p><br>
<p>The highest point of Mount Baker, Grant Peak, is on the exposed southeast rim of Carmelo Crater, which is a small pile of andesitic scoria lying on top of a stack of lava flows just below. Carmelo Crater is deeply dissected on its south side by the younger Sherman Crater. This crater is south of the summit, and its ice-covered floor is 1,000 ft below the summit ice dome. This crater is the site of all Holocene eruptive activity. Hundreds of fumaroles vent gases, primarily, and.</p><br>
<p>Lava flows from the summit vent erupted between 30,000 and 10,000 years ago and, during the final stages of edifice construction, blocky pyroclastic flows entered the volcano&#39;s southeastern drainages. An eruption from Sherman Crater 6,600 years ago erupted a blanket of ash that extended more than 40 mi to the east. Today, sulfurous gases reach the surface via two fumarole pathways: Dorr Fumarole, northeast of the summit; and Sherman Crater, south of the summit. Both are sites of hydrothermal alteration, converting lavas to weak, white-to-yellow clays; sulfur is a common mineral around these fumaroles. At Sherman Crater, collapses of this weakened rock generated lahars in the 1840s.</p><br>
<h4>Mazama Park eruptive period: 6,600 years ago</h4><br>
<p>Approximately 6,600 years ago, a series of discrete events culminated in the largest tephra-producing eruption in post-glacial time at Mount Baker. This is the last episode of undoubted magmatic activity preserved in the geologic record.</p><br>
<h4>Historical activity</h4><br>
<p>Several eruptions occurred from Sherman Crater during the 19th century; they were witnessed from the Bellingham area. A possible eruption was seen in June 1792 during the Spanish expedition of Dionisio Alcalá Galiano and Cayetano Valdés. Their report read, in part:</p><br>
<p>In 1843, explorers reported a widespread layer of newly fallen rock fragments "like a snowfall" and that the forest was "on fire for miles around". It is highly unlikely that these fires were caused by ashfall, however, as charred material is not found with deposits of this fine-grained volcanic ash, which was almost certainly cooled in the atmosphere before falling. Rivers south of the volcano were reportedly clogged with ash, and Native Americans reported that many salmon perished. Reports of flooding on the Skagit River from the eruption are, however, probably greatly exaggerated. A short time later, two collapses of the east side of Sherman Crater produced two lahars, the first and larger of which flowed into the natural Baker Lake, increasing its level by at least 10 ft. The location of the 19th-century lake is now covered by waters of the modern dam-impounded Baker Lake. Similar but lower level hydrovolcanic activity at Sherman Crater continued intermittently for several decades afterward. On 26 November 1860, passengers who were traveling by steamer from New Westminster to Victoria reported that Mount Baker was "puffing out large volumes of smoke, which upon breaking, rolled down the snow-covered sides of the mountain, forming a pleasing effect of light and shade." In 1891, about 15 km3 of rock fell producing a lahar that traveled more than 6 mi and covered 1 square miles.</p><br>
<p>Activity in the 20th century decreased from the 19th century. Numerous small debris avalanches fell from Sherman Peak and descended the Boulder Glacier; a large one occurred on July 27, 2007. as seen from the southeast In early March 1975, a dramatic increase in fumarolic activity and snow melt in the Sherman Crater area raised concern that an eruption might be imminent. Other than the increased heat flow, few anomalies were recorded during the geophysical surveys, nor were any other precursory activities observed that would indicate that magma was moving up into the volcano. Several small lahars formed from material ejected onto the surrounding glaciers and acidic water was discharged into Baker Lake for many months.</p><br>
<p>Activity gradually declined over the next two years but stabilized at a higher level than before 1975.</p><br>
<h4>Current research at Mount Baker</h4><br>
<p>A considerable amount of research has been done at Mount Baker over the past decade, and it is now among the most-studied of the Cascade volcanoes. Recent and ongoing projects include gravimetric and GPS-based geodetic monitoring, fumarole gas sampling, tephra distribution mapping, new interpretations of the Schriebers Meadow lava flow, and hazards analyses. Mapping of Carmelo and Sherman craters, and interpretations of the eruptive history, continues, as well. The Mount Baker Volcano Research Center maintains an online archive of abstracts of this work, and an extensive references list, as well as photos.</p><br>
<h3>Glaciers and hydrology</h3><br>
<p>There are ten main glaciers on the mountain. The Coleman Glacier is the largest; it has a surface area of 5.2 km&sup2;. All retreated during the first half of the century, advanced from 1950–1975 and have been retreating increasingly rapidly since 1980.</p><br>
<p>Mount Baker is drained on the north by streams that flow into the North Fork Nooksack River, on the west by the Middle Fork Nooksack River, and on the southeast and east by tributaries of the Baker River. Lake Shannon and Baker Lake are the largest nearby bodies of water, formed by two dams on the Baker River.</p><br>
<h2>USA Navy</h2><br>
<p>Two ammunition ships of the United States Navy (traditionally named for volcanoes) have been named after the mountain. The first was USS Mount Baker (AE-4), which was commissioned from 1941 to 1947 and from 1951 to 1969. In 1972, the Navy commissioned USS Mount Baker (AE-34). It was decommissioned in 1996 and placed in service with the Military Sealift Command as USNS Mount Baker (T-AE-34). She was scrapped in 2012.</p><br>
<p>Masada  is an ancient fortification in the Southern District of Israel situated on top of an isolated rock plateau, akin to a mesa. It is located on the eastern edge of the Judaean Desert, overlooking the Dead Sea 20 km east of Arad.</p><br>
<p>Herod the Great built palaces for himself on the mountain and fortified Masada between 37 and 31 BCE. According to Josephus, the siege of Masada by troops of the Roman Empire at the end of the First Jewish–Roman War ended in the mass suicide of 960 people, the Sicarii rebels and their families hiding there.</p><br>
<p>Masada is one of Israel&#39;s most popular tourist attractions.Most popular during 2008;.</p><br>
<p>During 2005 to 2007 and 2009 to 2012, it was the second-most popular, behind the Jerusalem Biblical Zoo.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The cliff of Masada is, geologically speaking, a horst. As the cliffs on the east edge of Masada are about 400 m high, and the cliffs on the west are about 90 m high, the natural approaches to the cliff top are very difficult to navigate. The top of the mesa-like plateau is flat and rhomboid-shaped, about 550 m by 270 m. A casemate wall was around the top of the plateau totaling 1,300 m long and 4 m high, with many towers, and the fortress included storehouses, barracks, an armory, a palace, and cisterns that were refilled by rainwater. Three narrow, winding paths led from below up to fortified gates.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Almost all historical information about Masada comes from the first-century Jewish Roman historian Josephus.</p><br>
<h3>Hasmonean fortress</h3><br>
<p>Josephus writes that the site was first fortified by Alexander Jannaeus in the first century BCE. Herod the Great captured it in the power struggle that followed the death of his father Antipater. It survived the siege of the last Hasmonean king Antigonus II Mattathias, who ruled with Parthian support.</p><br>
<p>No Hasmonean-period building remains could be identified during archaeological excavations at Masada.</p><br>
<h3>Herodian palace-fortress</h3><br>
<p>According to Josephus, between 37 and 31 BCE, Herod the Great built a large fortress on the plateau as a refuge for himself in the event of a revolt, and erected there two palaces.</p><br>
<h3>First Jewish-Roman War</h3><br>
<p>In 66 CE, a group of Jewish rebels, the Sicarii, overcame the Roman garrison of Masada with the aid of a ruse. After the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, additional members of the Sicarii fled Jerusalem and settled on the mountaintop after slaughtering the Roman garrison. According to Josephus, the Sicarii were an extremist Jewish splinter group antagonistic to a larger grouping of Jews referred to as the Zealots, who carried the main burden of the rebellion. Josephus said that the Sicarii raided nearby Jewish villages including Ein Gedi, where they massacred 700 women and children.</p><br>
<p>In 73 CE, the Roman governor of Iudaea, Lucius Flavius Silva, headed the Roman legion X Fretensis and laid siege to Masada. The Roman legion surrounded Masada, built a circumvallation wall and then a siege ramp against the western face of the plateau.</p><br>
<p>According to Dan Gill, geological investigations in the early 1990s confirmed earlier observations that the 114 m (375 ft) high assault ramp consisted mostly of a natural spur of bedrock. The ramp was complete in the spring of 73, after probably two to three months of siege, allowing the Romans to finally breach the wall of the fortress with a battering ram on April 16. The Romans employed the X Legion and a number of auxiliary units and Jewish prisoners of war, totaling some 15,000 (of whom an estimated 8,000 to 9,000 were fighting men), in crushing Jewish resistance at Masada. A giant siege tower with a battering ram was constructed and moved laboriously up the completed ramp. The walls of the fortress were breached in 73 CE. According to Josephus, when Roman troops entered the fortress, they discovered that its defendants had set all the buildings but the food storerooms ablaze and committed mass suicide or killed each other, 960 men, women, and children in total. Josephus wrote of two stirring speeches that the Sicari leader had made to convince his men to kill themselves. Only two women and five children were found alive.</p><br>
<p>Josephus presumably based his narration upon the field commentaries of the Roman commanders that were accessible to him.</p><br>
<p>Significant discrepancies exist between archaeological findings and Josephus&#39; writings. Josephus mentions only one of the two palaces that have been excavated, refers only to one fire, while many buildings show fire damage, and claims that 960 people were killed, while the remains of only 28 bodies have been found.</p><br>
<p>The year of the siege of Masada may have been 73 or 74 CE.</p><br>
<h3>Byzantine monastery of Marda</h3><br>
<p>Masada was last occupied during the Byzantine period, when a small church was established at the site. The church was part of a monastic settlement identified with the monastery of Marda known from hagiographical literature. This identification is generally accepted by researchers. The Aramaic common noun marda, "fortress", corresponds in meaning to the Greek name of another desert monastery of the time, Kastellion, and is used to describe that site in the vita (biography) of St Sabbas, but it is only used as a proper name for the monastery at Masada, as can be seen from the vita of St Euthymius.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeology</h2><br>
<h3>Chalcolithic period</h3><br>
<p>An almost inaccessible cave, dubbed Yoram Cave, located on the sheer southern cliff face 100 m below the plateau, has been found to contain numerous plant remains, of which 6,000-year-old barley seeds were in such good state of preservation that their genome could be sequenced. This is the first time that this succeeded with a Chalcolithic plant genome, which is also the oldest one sequenced so far. The Yoram Cave seeds were found to be fairly different from the wild variety, proof for an already advanced process of domestication, but very similar to the types of barley still cultivated in the region - an indication for remarkable constancy.</p><br>
<h3>Identification and initial digs</h3><br>
<p>The site of Masada was identified in 1838 by Americans Edward Robinson and Eli Smith, and in 1842, American missionary Samuel W. Wolcott and the English painter W. Tipping were the first moderns to climb it. After visiting the site several times in the 1930s and 1940s, Shmarya Guttman conducted an initial probe excavation of the site in 1959.</p><br>
<h3>Yigael Yadin expedition</h3><br>
<p>Masada was extensively excavated between 1963 and 1965 by an expedition led by Israeli archeologist and former military Chief-of-Staff Yigael Yadin.</p><br>
<p>Due to the remoteness from human habitation and its arid environment, the site remained largely untouched by humans or nature for two millennia. The Roman attack ramp still stands on the western side and can be climbed on foot. Many of the ancient buildings have been restored from their remains, as have the wall paintings of Herod&#39;s two main palaces, and the Roman-style bathhouses that he built. The synagogue, storehouses, and houses of the Jewish rebels have also been identified and restored. The meter-high circumvallation wall that the Romans built around Masada can be seen, together with 11 barracks for the Roman soldiers just outside this wall. Water cisterns two-thirds of the way up the cliff drain the nearby wadis by an elaborate system of channels, which explains how the rebels managed to conserve enough water for such a long time.</p><br>
<h4>Epigraphic findings</h4><br>
<p>Inside the synagogue, an ostracon bearing the inscription me&#39;aser cohen (tithe for the priest) was found, as were fragments of two scrolls; parts of Deuteronomy 33–34 and parts of Ezekiel 35–38 (including the vision of the "dry bones"), found hidden in pits dug under the floor of a small room built inside the synagogue. In other loci, fragments were found of the books of Genesis, Leviticus, Psalms, and Sirach, as well as of the Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice.</p><br>
<p>In the area in front of the Northern Palace, 11 small ostraca were recovered, each bearing a single name. One reads "ben Yair" and could be short for Eleazar ben Ya&#39;ir, the commander of the fortress. The other 10 names may be those of the men chosen by lot to kill the others and then themselves, as recounted by Josephus.</p><br>
<h4>Skeletal findings</h4><br>
<p>The skeletal remains of 28 people were unearthed at Masada. The remains of a male 20–22 years of age, a female 17–18, and a child about 12 years old were found in the palace. The remains of two men and a full head of hair with braids belonging to a woman were also found in the bath house. Forensic analysis showed the hair had been cut from the woman&#39;s head with a sharp instrument while she was still alive (an old practice for captured women) while the braids indicated that she was married. Based on the evidence, anthropologist Joe Zias believes the remains may have been Romans whom the rebels captured when they seized the garrison.</p><br>
<p>The sparse remains of another 24 people were found in a cave at the base of the cliff. Although the excavator Yigal Yadin was unsure of their ethnicity, the rabbinical establishment concluded that they were remains of the Jewish defenders, and in July 1969, they were reburied as Jews in a state ceremony. Carbon dating of textiles found with the remains in the cave indicate they are contemporaneous with the period of the revolt, and pig bones were also present (occasionally occurring for Roman burials due to pig sacrifices); this indicates that the remains may belong to non-Jewish Roman soldiers or civilians who occupied the site before or after the siege. Zias also questioned whether as many as 24 individuals were present, since only 4% of that number of bones was recovered.</p><br>
<h4>Roman-period palm seed</h4><br>
<p>A 2,000-year-old Judean date palm seed discovered during archaeological excavations in the early 1960s was successfully germinated into a date plant, popularly known as "Methuselah" after the longest-living figure in the Hebrew Bible. At the time, it was the oldest known germination, remaining so until a new record was set in 2012. As of September 2016, it remains the oldest germination from a seed.</p><br>
<h4>Byzantine monastery</h4><br>
<p>The remnants of a Byzantine church dating from the fifth and sixth centuries have also been excavated on the top of Masada.</p><br>
<h3>Archaeology vs. Josephus</h3><br>
<h4>No Hasmonean buildings found</h4><br>
<p>Yadin&#39;s team could detect no architectural remains of the Hasmonean period, the only findings firmly dated to this period being the numerous coins of Alexander Jannaeus.</p><br>
<h4>Inaccurate description</h4><br>
<p>According to Shaye Cohen, archaeology shows that Josephus account is "incomplete and inaccurate". Josephus only writes of one palace; archaeology reveals two. His description of the northern palace contains several inaccuracies, and he gives exaggerated figures for the height of the walls and towers. Josephus account is contradicted by the "skeletons in the cave, and the numerous separate fires".</p><br>
<h4>Historicity of mass suicide</h4><br>
<p>According to Kenneth Atkinson, no "archaeological evidence that Masada&#39;s defenders committed mass suicide" exists.</p><br>
<h2>Modern tourism</h2><br>
<p>Masada was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2001.</p><br>
<p>In 2007, the Masada Museum in Memory of Yigael Yadin opened at the site, in which archeological findings are displayed in a theatrical setting. Many of the artifacts exhibited were unearthed by Yadin and his archaeological team from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem during the 1960s.</p><br>
<p>The archaeological site is situated in the Masada National Park, and the park requires an entrance fee (even if by hiking). There are two hiking paths, both very steep:</p><br>
<p>The Snake Trail leaves from the eastern (Dead Sea) side at the Masada Museum and gains around 300 m in elevation. A dawn hike up the Snake Path on the eastern side of the mountain (access via the Dead Sea Highway) is considered part of the "Masada experience".</p><br>
<p>The Roman Ramp trail is also very steep, but has less elevation gain, and is accessed from the western side of the mountain (with access by car from the Arad road).</p><br>
<p>Hikers frequently start an hour before sunrise, when the park opens, to avoid the mid-day heat, which can exceed 43 &deg;C in the summer. In fact, the hiking paths are often closed during the day in the summer because of the heat. Visitors are encouraged to bring drinking water for the hike up, as water is only available at the top.</p><br>
<p>Alternatively, for a higher fee, visitors can take a cable car (the Masada cableway, opens at 8 am) to the top of the mesa.</p><br>
<p>A visitors&#39; center and the museum are at the base of the cable car.</p><br>
<p>A light-and-sound show is presented on some summer nights on the western side of the mountain (access by car from the Arad road or by foot, down the mountain via the Roman Ramp path).</p><br>
<h2>Phases and layout</h2><br>
<p>An example of Herodian architecture, Masada was the first site Herod the Great fortified after he gained control of his kingdom.</p><br>
<h3>Phase I: Western Palace etc.</h3><br>
<p>The first of three building phases completed by Herod began in 35 BCE. During the first phase the Western Palace was built, along with three smaller palaces, a storeroom, and army barracks. Three columbarium towers and a swimming pool at the south end of the site were also completed during this building phase.</p><br>
<p>The original center of the Western Palace was square and was accessed through an open courtyard on the northwest corner of the building. The courtyard was the central room of the Western Palace and directed visitors into a portico, used as a reception area for visitors. Visitors were then led to a throne room. Off the throne room was a corridor used by the king, with a private dressing room, which also had another entrance way that connected to the courtyard through the mosaic room. The mosaic room contained steps that led to a second floor with separate bedrooms for the king and queen.</p><br>
<h3>Phase II: Northern Palace etc.</h3><br>
<p>The second building phase in 25 BCE included an addition to the Western Palace, a large storage complex for food, and the Northern Palace. The Northern Palace is one of Herod&#39;s more lavish palace-fortresses, and was built on the hilltop on the north side of Masada and continues two levels down, over the end of the cliffs. The upper terrace of the Northern Palace included living quarters for the king and a semicircular portico to provide a view of the area. A stairway on the west side led down to the middle terrace that was a decorative circular reception hall. The lower terrace was also for receptions and banquets. It was enclosed on all four sides with porticos and included a Roman bathhouse.</p><br>
<h3>Phase III: casemate wall etc.</h3><br>
<p>In 15 BCE, during the third and final building phase, the entire site of Masada – except for the Northern Palace – was enclosed by a casemate wall, which included a double wall with a space between that was used as living chambers for the soldiers and as extra storage space. The Western Palace was also extended for a third time to include more rooms for the servants and their duties.</p><br>
<h2>Legacy</h2><br>
<h3>World War II</h3><br>
<p>The Masada story was the inspiration for the "Masada plan" devised by the British during the Mandate era. The plan was to man defensive positions on Mount Carmel with Palmach fighters, to stop Erwin Rommels expected drive through the region in 1942. The plan was abandoned following Rommels defeat at El Alamein.</p><br>
<h3>Israeli army</h3><br>
<p>The chief of staff of the Israel Defense Forces (IDF), Moshe Dayan, initiated the practice of holding the swearing-in ceremony of Israeli Armoured Corps soldiers who had completed their tironut (IDF basic training) on top of Masada. The ceremony ended with the declaration: "Masada shall not fall again." The soldiers climbed the Snake Path at night and were sworn in with torches lighting the background. These ceremonies are now also held at various other locations, including the Armoured Corps Memorial at Latrun, the Western Wall and Ammunition Hill in Jerusalem, Akko prison, and training bases.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Jewish American light welterweight champion boxer Cletus Seldin wears a jacket, on the back of which is written "Remember the Masada".</p><br>
<p>Masada is a 1981 American television dramatization miniseries of the siege of Masada, based on Ernest K. Gann&#39;s historical novel The Antagonists (1971).</p><br>
<p>The Dovekeepers (2015), a two-part American television miniseries adaptation of Alice Hoffman&#39;s 2011 historical novel, dramatizes the siege of Masada.</p><br>
<p>In 2017, Jean Michel Jarre performed an electronic music concert near the fortress.</p><br>
<p>Masada is the name of a John Zorn led jazz project exploring Jewish musical themes.</p><br>
